Chapter 11 Paragraph Essentials

Learning Objectives

• Identify the three parts of a well-developed paragraph
• Identify the characteristics of an effective topic sentence
• Identify the characteristics of effective supporting sentences
• Identify the characteristics of an effective closing sentence
• Write an effective paragraph, including a topic sentence, supporting sentences, and a closing sentence

This chapter explains how to compose an effective paragraph. Sometimes in your university studies, you will be asked to write a stand-alone paragraph—especially on exams. More often, you will be asked to write an essay or report that is composed of multiple paragraphs. The key to both tasks is the ability to write well-focused, well-developed paragraphs.

Composing an effective paragraph requires a method similar to building a house. You may have the finest content or materials, but if you do not arrange them in the correct order, then the final product will not hold together very well.

What Is a Paragraph?

A paragraph is a series of sentences that are focused on a single topic and work together as a unit to convey a message. The sentences are arranged in a particular order to develop the topic. A writer indicates the beginning of a paragraph by indenting the first line.

Paragraphs separate ideas into logical, manageable chunks. One paragraph focuses on only one main idea and presents coherent sentences to support that one point. Because all the sentences in one paragraph support the same point, a paragraph may stand on its own. To create longer assignments and to discuss more than one point, writers group together paragraphs. In a multiparagraph piece of writing, a writer starts a new paragraph for each new idea. A strong paragraph contains three distinct components:

Topic sentence: The topic sentence presents the topic and the controlling idea of the paragraph.
Body: The body is composed of the supporting sentences that develop the controlling idea.
Closing sentence: The closing sentence is the final sentence, which reinforces the controlling idea.

The foundation of a good paragraph—whether it is to be a stand-alone paragraph or part of an essay—is the topic sentence, which expresses the main idea of the paragraph. The topic sentence is often the first sentence of a paragraph, particularly in stand-alone paragraphs and in the body paragraphs of an essay. (In an essay, the topic sentence of each body paragraph relates to the thesis, or main argument, of the essay and guides the reader by signposting what each paragraph is about.) All the sentences in the rest of the paragraph should relate to and support the topic sentence. The closing sentence should sum up the paragraph and reinforce the topic sentence.

Effective Topic Sentences

Pick up any newspaper or magazine and read the first sentence of an article. Can you tell what the rest of the article is about? If so, you have likely read the topic sentence. Read the following example:

Creating a national set of standards for math and English education will improve student learning in many provinces.

This topic sentence declares that the writer is in favour of standardizing math and English education. After reading this sentence, a reader might reasonably expect the writer to provide supporting details and facts to argue that standardizing math and English education might improve student learning in many provinces.

The topic sentence orients the reader and provides an indication of what will follow in the rest of the paragraph. An effective topic sentence

a. introduces a topic (the subject that the writer is writing about)
b. states a controlling idea about that topic (the main idea the writer wants to convey about that subject)
c. may indicate the writer’s stance (opinion or argument) about the topic

In Chapter 10, you practiced developing a suitably narrow topic for a paragraph. Now we’ll examine the other key component of an effective topic sentence: the controlling idea.

The Controlling Idea

A topic sentence that contains only a topic is not effective. For example:

Ineffective topic sentence: I grew up in Aspen Butte, Alberta.

While this sentence introduces a topic, it merely states a simple fact about the topic. It does not contain a controlling idea that will provide direction for the paragraph, so it is not yet an effective topic sentence.

Effective topic sentence: I grew up in Aspen Butte, Alberta, the setting for all my wonderful childhood memories of outdoor activities in beautiful, unspoiled nature.

This sentence introduces a topic and a controlling idea that will provide direction for the paragraph. Therefore, it is an effective topic sentence. The reader will expect the entire paragraph to remain focused on pleasant childhood memories of outdoor activities in Aspen Butte.

Because it is the controlling idea that directs the paragraph, different writers may write about the same topic, but differences in the controlling ideas will result in very different paragraphs. Compare these examples:

I grew up in Aspen Butte, Alberta, the setting for all my wonderful childhood memories of outdoor activities in beautiful, unspoiled nature.
I grew up in Aspen Butte, Alberta, a claustrophobic small town that stifled my creativity and individuality to the point that I couldn’t wait to leave.

Both sentences are effective topic sentences: each introduces a topic and a controlling idea. However, although both paragraphs are about the same topic—growing up in Aspect Butte—the controlling ideas are very different, which will result in two very different paragraphs. Based on the second topic sentence, the reader will expect the entire paragraph to focus on unpleasant childhood memories of living in Aspen Butte.

Notice, too, that the controlling idea is what makes the paragraph interesting. The statement “I grew up in Aspen Butte” does not pique a reader’s interest. The two improved topic sentences are much more intriguing and thus more likely to encourage the reader to keep reading. Let’s look at some effective topic sentences for academic paragraphs:

Cannabis is a destructive influence on teens and causes long-term brain damage.
The antinausea properties in cannabis are a lifeline for many cancer patients.
Legalizing cannabis would create a higher demand for class A and class B drugs.

Although all three topic sentences introduce the same topic—cannabis—the controlling ideas are very different, so the focus and content of each paragraph will be different, and the writer will have to do different research for each topic to support the topic sentence.

Practice 11.1

Circle the topic and underline the controlling idea in each of the following topic sentences.

A. Exercising three times a week is the only way to maintain good physical health.
B. Sexism and racism are still rampant in today’s workplace.
C. Raising the legal driving age to twenty-one would decrease road-traffic accidents.
D. Owning a business is the only way to achieve financial success.
E. Dog owners should be prohibited from taking their pets on public beaches.

Five Characteristics of a Good Topic Sentence

1. A good topic sentence introduces a topic and a controlling idea.
- Weak topic sentence: In this paragraph, I am going to discuss the rising suicide rate among young professionals.
  This sentence introduces a topic, but it does not present a controlling idea. Also, it contains unnecessary filler: “In this paragraph, I am going to. . . .”
- Stronger topic sentence: The rising suicide rate among young professionals is a cause for immediate concern.
  This topic sentence presents a controlling idea: a stance on rising suicide rates among young professionals.
2. A good topic sentence provides an accurate indication of what will follow in the rest of the paragraph.
Let’s say a student is writing a paragraph about a specific incident that involved firefighters and is writing a topic sentence for the paragraph:
- Weak topic sentence: People rarely give firefighters the credit they deserve for such a physically and emotionally demanding job.
  This topic sentence is too general because the paragraph is not about all firefighters or the credit they receive; instead, the paragraph is about a specific incident involving specific firefighters.
- Stronger topic sentence: During the October riots, Unit 3B went beyond the call of duty.
  This is a strong topic sentence because it indicates that the paragraph will contain information about particular firefighters during a particular incident.
3. A good topic sentence is clear and easy to follow.
- Weak topic sentence: In general, writing an essay, thesis, or other academic or non-academic document is considerably easier and of much higher quality if you first construct an outline, of which there are many different types.
  This topic sentence includes a topic and a controlling idea, but both are buried beneath the confusing sentence structure and unnecessary vocabulary. These obstacles make it difficult for the reader to follow.
- Stronger topic sentence: Most forms of writing can be improved by first creating an outline.
  This topic sentence cuts out unnecessary verbiage and simplifies the previous statement, making it easier for the reader to follow.
4. A good topic sentence focuses on the main controlling idea, not the supporting details.
- Weak topic sentence: Salaries should be capped in baseball for many reasons, most importantly so we don’t allow the same team to win year after year.
  This topic sentence includes one supporting detail—but not the others; therefore, it misleads the reader about the content of the paragraph.
- Stronger topic sentence: Introducing a salary cap would improve the game of baseball for three reasons.
  This topic sentence omits the additional supporting details so that it can be expanded upon later in the paragraph.
5. A good topic sentence engages the reader by using interesting vocabulary.
- Weak topic sentence: The military deserves better equipment.
  This topic sentence includes a main idea and a controlling thesis, but the language is bland and unexciting.
- Stronger topic sentence: The appalling lack of resources provided to the Canadian military requires Canadians’ immediate attention.
  This topic sentence reiterates the same idea and controlling thesis, but adjectives such as appalling and immediate better engage the reader. These words also indicate the writer’s tone.

Practice 11.2

Choose the most effective topic sentence from the following pairs.

A.
1. a. This paragraph will discuss the likelihood of the liberals winning the next election.
2. b. To boost their chances of winning the next election, the liberals need to listen to public opinion.
B.
1. a. The unrealistic demands of union workers are crippling the economy for three main reasons.
2. b. Union workers are crippling the economy because companies are unable to remain competitive as a result of added financial pressure.
C.
1. a. Authors are losing money as a result of technological advances.
2. b. The introduction of new technology will devastate the literary world.
D.
1. a. Rap music is produced by untalented individuals with oversized egos.
2. b. This paragraph will consider whether talent is required in the rap music industry.

Practice 11.3

Using the tips on developing effective topic sentences in this section, create a topic sentence on each of the following subjects. Remember to include a controlling idea.

An endangered species:
- ____________________________________________________________________________
The cost of fuel:
- ____________________________________________________________________________
The legal drinking age:
- ____________________________________________________________________________
A controversial film or novel:
- ____________________________________________________________________________

Ask a peer to underline the topic and circle the controlling idea in each of the topic sentences you created.

Many times, after writing a paragraph, a writer will realize that the paragraph didn’t go in exactly the direction that was expected. Therefore, it might be necessary to revise the topic sentence. Let’s look again at the topic sentence about education standards:

Creating a national set of standards for math and English education will improve student learning in many provinces.

When starting out, the student intended to write only about standards for math and English education. However, as he wrote the paragraph, he found himself arguing for standards in science education too.

After finishing the paragraph, the student reviews the topic sentence and realizes that because he added science education to the paragraph, the topic sentence is no longer accurate. It suggests a scope that is narrower than the actual content of the paragraph. Put simply, the topic sentence no longer matches the content of the paragraph.

The writer has two choices: (a) revise the topic sentence so that it more accurately reflects the actual content of the paragraph, or (b) change the content of the paragraph (by removing the reference to science education) so that it more accurately reflects the scope introduced in the topic sentence. The writer should choose one of those options to improve the unity of the paragraph.

After finishing a paragraph, always go back and review the topic sentence to make sure it still matches the rest of the paragraph.

Positioning a Topic Sentence

Identifying topic sentences and thinking about their placement in a paragraph will prepare you to write your own effective topic sentences and well-organized paragraphs.

Think back to what you have been taught previously about where to place a topic sentence in a paragraph. What is the best position for a topic sentence?

Practice 11.4

Read the following paragraph. Underline the topic sentence.

This season, the plague of reality television continues to darken our airwaves. Along with the return of mindless shows like Keeping Up with the Kardashians and Big Brother, we are to be cursed with yet another mindless creation. Prisoner follows the daily lives of eight suburban housewives who have chosen to be put in jail for the purposes of a fake psychological experiment. A preview for the first episode shows the usual tears and tantrums associated with reality television. Survivor and The Bachelor continue with yet another season, but these shows long ago failed to interest intelligent viewers. I dread to think what new shows producers will come up with next season. If any of them are reading this blog, I ask them to stop bombarding us with this garbage. We’ve had enough reality television to last us a lifetime.

The first sentence of this paragraph is the topic sentence. It tells the reader that the paragraph will be about reality television shows, and it expresses the writer’s distaste for these shows through the use of the words plague and darken.

Each of the following sentences in the paragraph supports the topic sentence by providing further information about specific reality television shows. The final sentence is the closing sentence. It uses different words to reiterate the main point that viewers are bored with reality television shows.

In the example above, the topic sentence opens with a statement about a subject (reality shows) and then presents specific examples (the reality shows Keeping Up with the Kardashians, Big Brother, Prisoner, Survivor, and The Bachelor).

While most paragraphs begin with the topic sentence, topic sentences may be placed in other positions in a paragraph. Let’s look at another paragraph.

Practice 11.5

Read the following paragraph. Underline the topic sentence.

Last year, a cat travelled two hundred kilometres to reach its family, who had moved to another city and had left their pet behind. Even though the cat had never been to the new home, it was able to track down its former owners. A dog in my neighbourhood can predict when its master is about to have a seizure. It makes sure that he does not hurt himself during an epileptic fit. Cats and dogs have amazing senses that humans do not have and cannot yet understand.

In this case, the last sentence of this paragraph is the topic sentence. The paragraph first provides supporting sentences that contain specific examples (a cat that tracked down its owners and a dog that can predict seizures). Then the paragraph ends with the topic sentence, which makes a statement that draws a conclusion from these examples (dogs’ and cats’ senses are better than humans’).

By choosing this placement, the writer presents detailed examples as evidence to back up their point, preparing the reader to accept the topic sentence as the truth.

Sometimes, the topic sentence can appear midparagraph.

Practice 11.6

Read the following paragraph. Underline the topic sentence.

For many years, I suffered from severe anxiety every time I took an exam. Hours before the exam, my heart would begin pounding, my legs would shake, and sometimes I would become physically unable to move. Last year, I was referred to a specialist and finally found a technique for controlling my anxiety: breathing exercises. It seems so simple, but by doing just a few breathing exercises a couple of hours before an exam, I gradually got my anxiety under control. The exercises help slow my heart rate and make me feel less anxious. Better yet, they require no pills, no equipment, and very little time. It is amazing how just breathing correctly has helped me learn to manage my anxiety symptoms.

In this paragraph, the topic sentence is the third sentence, appearing near the middle of the paragraph. It expresses the main idea: breathing exercises can help control anxiety. The preceding sentences enable the writer to build up to his main point (breathing exercises can help control anxiety) by using a personal anecdote (how the writer used to suffer from anxiety). The supporting sentences then expand on how breathing exercises help the writer by providing additional information. The closing sentence restates how breathing can help manage anxiety.

Placing a topic sentence in the middle of a paragraph is often used in creative writing.

If you notice that you have used a topic sentence in the middle of a paragraph in an academic essay, read through the paragraph carefully to make sure that it contains only one major topic.

The placement of a topic sentence depends on the audience, the purpose, and the arrangement (order) of ideas. When the purpose of the assignment is to persuade, for example, the topic sentence should be the first sentence in a paragraph. In a persuasive essay, the writer’s point of view should be clearly expressed at the beginning of each paragraph.

Implied Topic Sentences

Some paragraphs do not contain a topic sentence at all. Instead of being directly stated, the main idea is implied in the content of the paragraph. Read the following example:

Heaving herself up the stairs, Luella had to pause for breath several times. She let out a wheeze as she sat down heavily in the wooden rocking chair. Tao approached her cautiously, as if she might crumble at the slightest touch. He studied her face, like parchment; stretched across the bones so finely he could almost see right through the skin to the decaying muscle underneath. Luella smiled a toothless grin.

Although no single sentence in this paragraph states the main idea, the entire paragraph focuses on one concept: Luella is extremely old. The topic sentence is implied rather than stated. This technique is often used in descriptive narrative writing and creative writing. Implied topic sentences work well if the writer has a firm idea of what they intend to say in the paragraph and sticks to it. However, a paragraph loses its effectiveness if an implied topic sentence is too subtle or the writer loses focus.

Supporting Sentences

You’ve learned that an effective paragraph has three major structural parts: the topic sentence, the body, and the closing sentence. In a stand-alone paragraph or in the body paragraphs of an essay, the topic sentence is usually the first sentence of the paragraph. The topic sentence provides a guide that the rest of the paragraph will follow.

Next, the body of the paragraph must support the topic sentence with more detailed information. Supporting sentences contain points and details that support the controlling idea. Supporting sentences explain, prove, or enhance the topic sentence. Most paragraphs contain three to eight supporting sentences, depending on the topic, audience, and purpose for writing. A supporting sentence usually offers one of the following:

Reason
The refusal of the baby boom generation to retire is contributing to the current lack of available jobs.
Fact
Many families now rely on older relatives to support them financially.
Statistic
Nearly 10 percent of adults are currently unemployed in Canada.
Quotation
According to Senator Simons, the Royal Alberta Museum will “revitalize the way we see ourselves as Albertans.”
Example
Last year, Bill was asked to retire at the age of fifty-five.

The type of supporting sentence(s) you choose will depend on what you are writing and why you are writing. For example, if you are attempting to persuade your audience to take a particular position, you should rely on facts, statistics, and concrete examples rather than personal opinions. To find information for your supporting sentences, consider using the following sources:

Reference book
Academic journal/article
Newspaper/magazine
Textbook
Encyclopedia
Biography/autobiography
Dictionary
Interview
Map
Website
Previous experience
Personal research

Practice 11.7

Read the following paragraph. Underline the topic sentence. After each supporting sentence, indicate whether the supporting sentence contains a reason (R), fact (F), statistic (S), quotation (Q), or example (E).

There are numerous advantages to owning a hybrid car. First, hybrid cars get 20 percent to 35 percent more kilometres to the litre than fuel-efficient gas-powered vehicles (___). Second, hybrids produce very few emissions during low-speed city driving (___). Because they do not require as much gas, hybrid cars reduce dependency on fossil fuels, which helps lower prices at the pump (___).
Alex Nichols bought a hybrid car two years ago and has been extremely impressed with its performance (___). “It’s the cheapest car I’ve ever had,” she said (___). “The running costs are far lower than previous gas-powered vehicles I’ve owned” (___). Given the low running costs and environmental benefits of owning a hybrid car, it is likely that many more people will follow Alex’s example.

Transitions

A strong paragraph moves seamlessly from the topic sentence to the supporting sentences and on to the closing sentence. To help organize a paragraph and ensure that ideas logically connect to one another, writers use transitional words and phrases. A transition is a connecting word that describes a relationship between ideas. Take another look at the earlier example:

There are numerous advantages to owning a hybrid car. First, hybrid cars get 20 percent to 35 percent more kilometres to the litre than fuel-efficient gas-powered vehicles. Second, hybrids produce very few emissions during low-speed city driving. Because they require less gas, hybrid cars reduce dependency on fossil fuels, which helps lower prices at the pump.
Alex Nichols bought a hybrid car two years ago and has been extremely impressed with its performance. “It’s the cheapest car I’ve ever had,” she said. “The running costs are far lower than previous gas-powered vehicles I’ve owned.” Given the low running costs and environmental benefits of owning a hybrid car, it is likely that many more people will follow Alex’s example in the near future.

Each of the underlined words is a transition word. Words such as first and second are transition words that show sequence or clarify order. They help organize the writer’s ideas by showing that they have another point to make in support of the topic sentence. Other transition words that show order include third, next, also, furthermore, and finally.

The transition word because is a transition word of consequence that continues a line of thought. It indicates that the writer will provide an explanation of a result. In this sentence, the writer explains why hybrid cars will reduce dependency on fossil fuels (because they require less gas). Other transition words or phrases of consequence include as a result, so that, since, therefore, thus, or for this reason.

To include a summarizing transition in the closing sentence, the writer could rewrite the final sentence as follows:

In conclusion, given the low running costs and environmental benefits of owning a hybrid car, it is likely that many more people will follow Alex’s example.

The list below provides some useful transition words and phrases to connect supporting sentences and concluding sentences. (In other chapters of this book, you will learn more transitional words and phrases for other purposes.)

Transitional Words and Phrases to Connect Sentences

For Supporting Sentences

above all
regardless
for instance
in particular
moreover
subsequently
also
conversely
furthermore
later on
nevertheless
therefore
aside from
correspondingly
however
likewise
on one hand
to begin with
at the same time
for example
in addition
meanwhile
on the contrary
in contrast

For Closing Sentences

after all
to conclude
in brief
in summary
on the whole
to sum up
all in all
finally
in conclusion
on balance
thus
in the end

Closing Sentences

The closing sentence is the last sentence in the paragraph. An effective closing sentence draws together all the ideas raised in the paragraph. It reminds readers of the controlling idea—the topic sentence—without restating it in exactly the same words. Therefore, the topic sentence and closing sentence will be similar in meaning, and those two sentences frame the supporting sentence in between. Compare the topic sentence and closing sentence from the previous example:

Topic sentence: There are numerous advantages to owning a hybrid car.
Closing sentence: Given the low running costs and environmental benefits of owning a hybrid car, it is likely that many more people will follow Alex’s example in the near future.

Notice the use of the synonyms advantages and benefits. The closing sentence reiterates the idea that owning a hybrid is advantageous without using the exact same words. It also summarizes two examples of the advantages covered in the supporting sentences: low running costs and environmental benefits.

Avoid introducing any new ideas in the closing sentence. A closing sentence is intended to provide the reader with a sense of completion. Introducing a subject that is not addressed in the paragraph will confuse the reader and weaken the paragraph.

A closing sentence may do any of the following:

Restate the main idea.
Example: Rising inflation is a concern to many Canadians.
Summarize the key points in the paragraph.
Example: Due to rising inflation and interest rates, many Canadians are struggling to buy groceries and pay their mortgages.
Draw a conclusion based on the information in the paragraph.
Example: These statistics indicate that unless the federal government takes action, rising costs will become a crisis in many Canadian households.
Make a prediction, suggestion, or recommendation about the information in the paragraph.
Example: Based on the recent trends in inflation and interest rates, it is likely that in the next decade, the majority of Canada’s young professionals will be unable to afford to purchase a home.
Offer an additional observation about the controlling idea.
Example: The inflation crisis was preventable.
Form the connection between the paragraph it closes and the following one.
Example: To mitigate the devastating effects of inflation, the federal government could take several steps.

Practice 11.8

Choose a topic, and write one example of each type of closing sentence described above.

Paragraph Length

How long should a paragraph be? One answer to this important question may be “long enough”—long enough for you to address your points and explain your main idea.

To grab attention or to present succinct supporting ideas, a paragraph can be fairly short and consist of two to three sentences. Journalistic style often calls for brief two- or three-sentence paragraphs because of the way people read the news, both online and in print. Blogs and other online information sources often adopt this paragraphing style, too, because readers often skim the first paragraphs of a great many articles before settling on the handful of stories they want to read in detail.

However, in most academic essays, avoid very short paragraphs, which tend to make an essay seem choppy and leave the reader with the impression that the supporting points have not been adequately developed.

A paragraph in a complex essay about an abstract point can be two-thirds of a page or more in length. In general, in academic writing, a paragraph is between one-quarter and two-thirds of a page of double-spaced text, or roughly seventy-five to two hundred words in length. As long as the writer maintains focus on the topic and does not switch topics or ramble, a long paragraph is acceptable.

You may find that a particular body paragraph you write may be longer than one that will hold your audience’s interest. In such cases, re-examine the paragraph to determine whether it actually covers more than one main idea. If so, divide the paragraph into two or more shorter paragraphs, adding a topic statement or a transitional word or phrase at the start of the new paragraph. Transition words and phrases show the connection between the two ideas.

Practice 11.9

Identify the topic sentence, supporting sentences, and closing sentence in the following paragraph.

One of the few mammals that can survive in a harsh desert environment, the kangaroo rat has made some fascinating adaptations to a dry climate. Able to live in some of the most arid parts of the southwest, the kangaroo rat neither sweats nor pants to keep cool. Its specialized kidneys enable it to survive on a minuscule amount of water. Unlike other desert creatures, the kangaroo rat does not store water in its body but instead is able to convert the dry seeds it eats into moisture. Its ability to adapt to such a hostile environment makes the kangaroo rat a truly amazing creature.

Please share with a friend and compare your answers.

Practice 11.10

Write a paragraph on a topic of your choice. Be sure to include an effective topic sentence, well-chosen supporting sentences, and an appropriate closing sentence. Focus on the relationship between the topic sentence, supporting sentences, and concluding sentence. Use transitions to illustrate the connection between each sentence in the paragraph.

Please share with a friend and compare your work. Examine each paragraph and identify the topic sentence, supporting sentences, and concluding sentence. Then consider the following questions:

• Is the topic sentence clearly identifiable, or is it implied?
• Does the topic sentence introduce the topic and contain a controlling idea?
• Where is the topic sentence positioned in the paragraph?
• Do all the supporting sentences relate to the topic sentence?
• Does the writer use effective transitions to link their ideas?
• Does the closing sentence accurately summarize the main point of the paragraph?

Finally, identify the weakest areas of the paragraph and rewrite them.

Now that you’ve learned to write effective paragraphs, which are the building blocks of essays, it’s time to learn how to make paragraphs work together.

Key Takeaways

• A good paragraph contains three distinct components: a topic sentence, supporting sentences, and a closing sentence.
• Effective topic sentences contain both a topic and a controlling idea, are clear and easy to follow, use engaging vocabulary, and provide an accurate indication of what will follow in the rest of the paragraph.
• Topic sentences may be placed at the beginning, middle, or end of a paragraph. In most academic essays, the topic sentence of a body paragraph is placed at the beginning of the paragraph.
• Supporting sentences help explain, prove, or enhance the topic sentence by offering facts, reasons, statistics, quotations, or examples.
• Closing sentences summarize the key points in a paragraph and reiterate the main idea without repeating it word for word.
• Transitional words and phrases help organize ideas in a paragraph and show how these ideas relate to one another.

Chapter 12. Essay Essentials: Structure and Thesis Statements