“Chapter 17. Argumentative Essay” in “Read, Think, Write”
Chapter 17 Argumentative Essay
Learning Objectives
- • Determine the purpose of persuasion in writing
- • Understand the elements of an argument
- • Explain the importance and benefits of acknowledging opposing ideas
- • Identify the purpose and audience of an argumentative essay
- • Create an outline that constructs and follows a logical argument
- • Determine whether it is appropriate to use first-person pronouns in an argumentative essay
- • Identify the importance of establishing an appropriate tone in an argumentative essay
- • Avoid diction that reveals bias
- • Distinguish between fact and opinion
- • Use visuals to strengthen arguments
- • Develop an argumentative essay from topic to draft
When did you last try to persuade someone? Perhaps you tried to convince a spouse to go to an action movie instead of a romantic comedy. Perhaps you tried to talk a friend into going to your favourite restaurant rather than his. Or perhaps you tried to talk your teen out of getting a tattoo. Every day, we aim to persuade others.
In all writing, to a greater or lesser extent, the writer seeks to persuade the reader. For example, when you write an expository classification essay that divides parents into categories, you seek to persuade your reader that you have classified parents in the most useful and accurate way. When you write an expository process essay about the development of jazz music, you aim to persuade your reader that you have identified the most important stages in the development of the genre. However, when you write an expository essay, your focus is more on content—explaining something as it is—than on persuasion. Nearly every discipline will ask you to arrive at a logical and compelling conclusion in your papers, but by and large, most academic writing requires you to be convincing but not necessarily persuasive. In contrast, in an argumentative essay (also called an argumentation essay or a persuasive essay), the art of persuasion takes centre stage.
This chapter will examine the arts of persuasion and argumentation. We will look at persuasion as a means of changing others’ minds and argumentation as a form of convincing others of the possibility or even likelihood of your conclusion, whether it changes their minds or not. The distinction is an artificial one because the line between persuading and convincing is blurry. We will explore the forms persuasion and argumentation can take, the strategies you can apply to writing persuasively, and the pitfalls you should avoid. We’ll begin with a closer look at persuasion: what it is and why it is. In the second section, we will look more closely at argumentation and the common forms you can apply in your work and also at the many persuasive tactics that you can use or should avoid.
The Art of Persuasion
The art of persuasion (also known as rhetoric) implies that more than one opinion or conclusion on the subject at hand can be argued. The purpose of persuasion is to influence, motivate, convince, or prompt others to adopt a certain point of view, opinion, or conclusion.
There are many ways to persuade. In an essay that aims to sway an audience’s opinion on a topic, the arguments can draw on everything a writer has available to make the point, ranging from uncontestable facts to emotional, moral, or ideological opinions and any other convictions or beliefs. Whatever the author uses, the explicit intent is to make the reader accept the truth of the expressed opinion. This type of persuasion can be very effective and useful in a variety of settings, but in a nondebate-style argument in an academic writing situation, it is less likely to be promoted to its fullest persuasive extent. In an argumentative essay in an academic setting, your instructor is likely to encourage you to argue your thesis with evidence rather than opinions to support your claims. Nevertheless, it is good to realize that almost all forms of writing hope to persuade or convince the reader to accept the argued point as true, likely, possible, or acceptable.
The Greek philosopher Aristotle defined rhetoric (the art of persuasion through language) and listed three core elements that a persuasive text must have: pathos, logos, and ethos. Pathos roughly translates as “passion” and includes appeals to emotion and imagination. Logos translates as “rationality” and includes appeals to logic and reason. Ethos refers to the writer’s character, credibility, and authority.
Effective persuasive writers employ all three rhetorical strategies—pathos, logos, and ethos—in perfect balance by being passionate, logical, and credible. They appeal to the reader’s emotions, the reader’s sense of what is rational, and the reader’s acceptance of the credibility of the writer and the sources they refer to. Keep the pathos-logos-ethos tripod in mind in your own academic writing. By using these three modes to your advantage, you will make more convincing arguments.
Another way to think about the interplay of elements required for effective persuasion is to consider the relationship between the writer and the purpose of the writing, the topic of the writing (the content), and the reader (and the reader’s expectations).
The concept of the rhetorical triangle is that all three elements are interconnected and intersupportive of one another in a piece of persuasive writing. To persuade anyone of anything, you need to know who your audience is and what is likely to influence them. As a writer, you also need to be aware of what you want to convince them of; that is, you must be aware of your purpose. This is much more likely to happen when you choose a topic that really engages you and that you have expertise in so that you can knowledgeably write about your topic. From that solid foundation, you can make a strong, persuasive argument.
Figure 17.1: Aristotle’s Modes of Persuasion
Illustration by Jessica Tang.
Figure 17.2: The Rhetorical Triangle
Illustration by Jessica Tang.
Rhetorical Devices
Persuasive writers use specific rhetorical strategies to try to persuade the reader not only on the basis of evidence alone but also through the strategic use of language. Below is a list of some rhetorical strategies writers use to make their writing as appealing, clear, convincing, or even persuasive, as it can be. Keep in mind that you do not have to use all of these strategies all of the time or all at once. Be selective and choose those that make sense in the context of your argument.
- • Analogy: Compares the relationship between two things to a similar relationship between two other things in order to explain the relationship
- • Cause and effect: Analyzes why something happens and describes the consequences of a string of events
- • Comparison: Discusses similarities and differences
- • Counterpoints: Contrasts ideas such as black and white, dark and light, good and bad, and so on
- • Definition: Provides the meanings of terms
- • Description: Details sensory perceptions of a person, place, or thing in a straightforward way (see Imagery)
- • Diction: The author’s choice of words
- • Division and classification: Divides a whole into parts or sorts related items/aspects into categories
- • Exemplification: Provides examples or cases in point
- • Flashback: Recalls events in the past
- • Hyperbole: Exaggerates or overstates
- • Imagery: Evokes one or all of the senses (sight, sound, smell, touch, and taste)
- • Irony: An expression or utterance marked by a deliberate contrast between apparent and intended meaning, often humorous
- • Juxtaposition: Two things or ideas placed side by side for the sake of contrast
- • Metaphor: Compares two essentially unlike things, implying that one is the other
- • Narration: Recounts an event
- • Oxymoron: The combination of contradictory or opposite words to create a phrase
- • Paradox: Reveals a truth that at first seems contradictory
- • Parallelism: Deliberate repetition of identical or equivalent constructions in corresponding clauses
- • Parody: Imitates a writing style; meant to amuse
- • Personification: Attributing human-like characteristics or forms to an abstract concept
- • Repetition: Repeats certain words, phrases, or images
- • Sarcasm: Ironic observations and commentary aimed at hurting feelings
- • Satire: Ridicules the silliness of an idea, custom, vice, or habit
- • Simile: Compares two essentially unlike things, often in a phrase introduced by like or as
- • Style, tone, and voice: The writer’s attitude toward the subject or character—serious, humorous, sarcastic, cynical, satirical, objective, solemn, tongue-in-cheek, and so on.
- • Symbolism: Uses an object or action that means something more than its literal meaning
Source: Dubbelboer, Adien. “Step Two: Basic Rhetorical Strategies for Effective Communication.” OER Writing Resources, Athabasca University, Oct. 2016, ocw.lms.athabascau.ca/mod/book/view.php?id=3873&chapterid=2767.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License.
Edited extensively, October 2016, Adien Dubbelboer, Athabasca University.
Logical Fallacies
The recognition of logical fallacies, often referred to by their Latin name non sequiturs (which translates to “it does not follow”), is a powerful tool in argumentation, logic, and rhetoric. When an arguer is able to identify their opponent’s fallacious positions, they can point the fallacies out and expose a weakness, thus undermining the opponent’s position. Arguers comfortable with fallacies have an easier time avoiding them, consequently making their positions more tenable.
Missteps in logic can be confusing for students—sometimes a fallacy will be called by its Latin name, while other times it will be referred to by a synonym. Some are grouped together, while others are overly specific. For example, an “argument against the person” is often called an “ad hominem” argument, a “complex question” can be referred to as a “loaded question,” an “appeal to the people” occasionally loses its distinction between direct and indirect (by being referred to only as a “bandwagon fallacy”), and “begging the question” often implies only its aspect of circular reasoning and not its other aspects. However, more important than agreeing on a name is recognizing these non sequiturs. While a logician might dedicate their life to the nuances of logical fallacies, as a student, you are expected only to avoid fallacies in your own writing and identify them in others.
The following is a comprehensive list of fallacies. Use it as a reference to ensure you do not accidentally create a logical fallacy as you are writing persuasively to an audience, and use it to identify fallacies in others’ arguments.
Fallacy | Definition | Example |
---|---|---|
Appeal to force | Arguer threatens reader/listener | If you do not agree with me, I will beat you up. |
Appeal to pity | Arguer elicits pity from reader/listener | If you do not pass me in this course, I will get kicked out of school and have to flip burgers for the rest of my life. |
Appeal to the people (direct) | Arguer arouses mob mentality | The calf has drowned in the well. Our only course of action is to fill the well with sand so no other calf can ever drown in it again. |
Appeal to the people (indirect) | Arguer appeals to the reader’s/listener’s desire for security, love, respect, etc. | Of course you want to read my book; it is what all the intellectuals read. |
Abusive argument against the person (ad hominem) | Arguer verbally abuses the other arguer | That is a biscuit-brained idea; it is invalid. |
Circumstantial argument against the person (ad hominem) | Arguer presents the other arguer as predisposed to argue in this way | Of course you would say I need braces—you’re a dentist! |
Consistency argument against the person (tu quoque) | Arguer suggests the other arguer is a hypocrite, but not necessarily about a similar thing | How can you complain about me not putting out the garbage when you never gave my brother his watch back? |
Accident | General rule is applied to a specific case it was not intended to cover | Canadians are entitled to freedom of expression, so you cannot arrest me for yelling “fire” in the theatre. |
Straw man | Arguer distorts opponent’s argument and then attacks the distorted argument | Obviously, the university administrators who refuse to allow students to drink on campus are a bunch of puritans who do not speak for the majority and can be ignored. |
Missing the point | Arguer draws a conclusion different from that supported by the premises | University education fees are rising exponentially; therefore, we should reduce the number of years needed to obtain a degree. |
Red herring | Arguer leads reader/listener off track | People continually talk about the negative effects of tobacco, but did you know that Indigenous people used to smoke tobacco? Many Indigenous remedies are still used today in holistic medicine. |
Appeal to unqualified authority | Arguer cites untrustworthy authority | My sixteen-year-old cousin Billy said there was no moon landing, and he wants to be an astronaut, so it must be true. |
Appeal to ignorance | Arguer presupposes unknown or unknowable evidence and then draws a conclusion | There is no way of disproving the existence of God; therefore, he exists. Or conversely, there is no way of proving the existence of God; therefore, he does not exist. |
Hasty generalization | Conclusion is drawn from an atypical sample | Ms. Dobson’s rottweiler bit a neighbour boy; therefore, all rottweilers are violent dogs. |
False cause | Conclusion depends on nonexistent or minor causal connection | Every time I change the channel, my sports team scores. Therefore, any time I want my team to score, I need only change the channel. |
Slippery slope | Conclusion depends on unlikely chain reaction | If America maintains the right to bear arms, it will likely invade Canada or Mexico within the next five years. |
Weak analogy | Conclusion depends on defective analogy | My cousin Billy is just like Yao Ming—he is tall and loves basketball. Therefore, he will be a pro player just like Yao Ming. |
Begging the question | Arguer creates the illusion that inadequate premises are adequate by leaving out key premises, restating the conclusion as a premise, or reasoning in a circle | Of course animals have rights; just look at how they are being treated. |
Complex question | Multiple questions are concealed in a single question | Have you stopped sleeping with your secretary? |
False dichotomy | Arguer uses “either/or” statement that hides additional alternatives | Either you buy Axe body spray or you will not attract women. |
Suppressed evidence | Arguer ignores important evidence that requires a different conclusion | That doctor cannot practice andrology because she is a woman. |
Equivocation | Conclusion depends on a shift in the meaning of a word or phrase | A squirrel is a mammal, therefore when you squirrel things away you are being a mammal. |
Amphiboly | Conclusion depends on the wrong interpretation of a syntactically ambiguous statement | John rode his bike past the tree with a helmet. (The tree has a helmet?) |
Composition | Attribute is wrongly transferred from parts to whole | Bleach and ammonia individually are strong chemical cleaners; therefore, if I mix them, I will have a more effective cleaner. |
Division | Attribute is wrongly transferred from whole to parts | Our campus is over one hundred years old; therefore, every building on campus is over one hundred years old. |
Source: Dubbelboer, Adien. “Logical Fallacies.” OER Writing Resources, Athabasca University, Oct. 2016, https://ocw.lms.athabascau.ca/mod/book/view.php?id=3873&chapterid=2773. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Edited extensively, October 2016, Adien Dubbelboer, Athabasca University |
Practice 17.1
Take a moment to test your ability to recognize rhetorical strategies. Advertisements are a good place to start because the purpose of an ad is usually obvious, and advertisers often use exaggerated rhetoric to sell a product.
Work with a friend or fellow student and choose three advertisements to analyze. The ads can be in print, online, or on TV. Consider the following questions, and jot down your answers on a sheet of paper.
- 1. What is the aim or message of this ad?
- 2. What is likely the target audience of this ad? Think about age, gender, socioeconomic status, etc.
- 3. What tactics does the ad use to persuade the viewer/reader?
- 4. How do the advertisers use the tactic, and why might it be effective with the target audience?
- 5. Did you notice any logical fallacies in the ad, and if so, what type?
- 6. Is the ad effective in achieving its objective? Why or why not?
How to Write an Argumentative Essay
The next pages will take you through the process of preparing for and writing an argumentative essay. We will talk about the importance of considering your purpose and your audience; how to find and decide on a good topic; how to develop a solid argumentative thesis; how to distinguish between facts and opinions, including opposing ideas; and how to acknowledge the limits of your argumentation. When we come to creating an outline, we will also discuss the importance of style and tone, the effect of bias, and the strength and weakness of using the first-person perspective in argumentation.
Consider Your Purpose and Audience
In an argumentative essay, your main purpose is to provide an argument to persuade your audience that your thesis is true. Here the term argument refers not to an angry dispute but rather to a set of assertions in which one or more statements (the argument’s premises) are given as reasons for thinking that another contention (the argument’s conclusion) is true. Consequently, your aim in an argumentative essay is not simply to communicate information about a topic and express your point of view on it. You will also be trying to convince your audience that your point of view (i.e., your thesis) is right.
Given that your purpose is to convince your audience that your thesis is true, your intended audience should be people who don’t necessarily agree with your thesis already. After all, if your intended audience consisted merely of people who already agreed with your thesis, there would be no need to try to persuade them that it is true. Your intended audience will, therefore, not be the same as the one you might have for types of writing in which you address people who share your beliefs and urge them to some kind of action.
Keeping this intended audience in mind should help you to decide what types of reasons you will give in your arguments. They will have to be reasons that are likely to persuade someone who doesn’t already agree with you, and as such, they should be statements that any reasonable person would be inclined to agree with. Furthermore, you will need to ensure that any reasonable person would agree that your thesis follows logically from the explanations that you give to show it is true. Following these guidelines will, of course, help you avoid merely asserting that your thesis is obviously true and ridiculing any opposing point of view, which would be unlikely to convince anyone who doesn’t already share your way of looking at things. However, it should also help you avoid less obvious weaknesses in your argument, such as logical fallacies.
Choose a Topic
The best topic for an argumentative essay is one that is controversial. A controversial topic is one that elicits strong opinions. Take a minute to think about arguments you have overheard recently—maybe about politics or pipelines or medical assistance in dying. These are the types of discussions that can become really heated if the subject is something people are passionate about.
In addition to being controversial, a good topic for an argumentative essay doesn’t have an obvious right or wrong answer. If you can’t think of any reasons against your stance, the topic probably isn’t suitable. For a topic to be truly debated, there should be valid reasons on both sides of the debate. For example, this topic is not suitable for an argumentative essay because there is no valid argument against the statement:
- The federal government has a responsibility to uphold the obligations set out in treaties with Indigenous groups.
An example of the kind of topic that you will find in assignment instructions for an argumentative essay would be the following:
- Basing your argument on evidence from research, argue for or against switching to a vegan diet.
Because there is no clear “right” or “wrong” answer to whether people should become vegan, and because there are valid arguments for and against, this is a suitable topic for an argumentative essay.
When choosing a topic for an argumentative essay, it is easier if you choose a topic about which you feel very strongly. You probably have realized by this point that when you are writing, it is easier to write about a topic you already have some background knowledge on or something you are very interested in. This helps engage you and keep you interested in the writing process. However, being passionate about a particular issue can blind a writer to the merits of other points of view. Keep in mind that just like you, the person holding the opposite view likely arrived at that conclusion by looking at a collection of evidence from various sources and then synthesizing those ideas to develop that point of view. In order to understand or dispute it, you may have to retrace the steps that person took. It is not enough to simply discount it because it is not your view.
No matter the topic you choose, there are a few things to think about before you begin the writing process. First, ensure the topic is significant. Is a discussion of this topic one that has the potential to contribute to a field of study? Will it make an impact? This does not mean every discussion has to change lives, but it needs to be something relatively important. For example, a significant topic would be to convince your reader that eating at fast-food restaurants is detrimental to people’s cardiovascular systems. A less significant discussion would be if you were to try to convince your reader that one fast-food restaurant is better than another. That would just be an advertisement.
Next, the topic should be singular. This means you need to focus on one subject. Using the fast-food restaurant example, if you were to focus on the effects of fast food on both the cardiovascular and endocrine system, the discussion would lose its singular focus and there would be too much for you to cover.
A topic should be specific. The topic must be narrow enough that you can fully discuss it within the essay parameters (i.e., the maximum word count or page count). Many writers are afraid of getting too specific because they feel they will run out of things to say. If you develop the idea completely and give thorough explanations and plenty of examples, the specificity should not be a problem.
Finally, the thesis must be supportable. It’s not enough to want to make an argument; you must be sure that reliable evidence for that argument actually exists. It’s true that in the depths of the Internet, there is probably some form of evidence for the most obscure topics and the most unpopular points of view. However, someone’s opinions posted on a blog about why one fast-food restaurant is the best do not count as credible support. You must use credible scholarly sources in an academic essay. To learn more about how to evaluate the reliability of evidence, turn to Chapter 20: Thinking Critically About Information from Research.
Some appropriate topics for an argumentative essay could be:
- • Illegal immigration in Canada
- • Bias in the media
- • Civility in political discourse
- • The role of religion in educational systems
- • Charter schools versus public schools
- • Privatization of health care
- • Modern-day slavery (e.g., human trafficking)
- • Foreign policy
- • Stereotypes and prejudice
- • Gender roles and the workplace
Practice 17.2
Brainstorm several possible topics, and then choose a controversial topic on which you could base an argumentative essay: ___________________________________
Check that the topic is
- significant
- singular
- specific
- supportable
- Share your topic with a peer.
Develop a Thesis
An essential element of an argumentative essay is the thesis. The thesis is your position on the topic. For example, a student writing an argumentative essay on the topic of veganism could base the essay on this thesis:
- It is best to switch to a vegan diet because it is healthier, better for the environment, and more ethical than a diet that includes meat, fish, and dairy products.
On the other hand, the student could also base the argumentative essay on this thesis:
- People should not switch to vegan diets because human bodies evolved to depend on meat and because plant-based agriculture can cause more environmental harm than meat-based agriculture.
While both essays share the same topic—vegan diets—the essential argument about vegan diets would be very different in each essay.
Identify Claims and Provide Evidence
Once you’ve chosen a stance on the topic, identify at least three main reasons for your stance. The reasons will help you to convince your audience that your thesis is true. These reasons are the main claims that you make in your essay. In the case of the essay in favour of a vegan diet, the student could come up with the following main claims for thinking that their thesis is true:
- • A vegan diet is healthier than other diets.
- • A vegan diet is better for the environment than other diets.
- • A vegan diet is more ethical than other diets.
You will notice that the student mentioned these three main claims in the thesis statement, making the thesis statement an example of what is called a direct-list thesis statement. Not all argumentative essays will necessarily have a direct-list thesis statement, but it is usually a good idea to use one in your argumentative essay because it will help the reader follow your train of thought throughout the essay.
It will not be enough merely to state your main claims. You will also need to make sure that the reader understands what you mean by those claims. This will involve expressing your claims clearly and elaborating upon them when necessary. Furthermore, you will also have to defend the claims by providing evidence for thinking that they are true.
In the case of the essay promoting a vegan diet, each of the claims that the student gives for thinking that their thesis is true is something that itself needs to be backed up with evidence. For instance, the student would need to provide reasons to persuade the reader that a vegan diet is healthier than other diets. For that purpose, the student could provide the following three bits of evidence: a vegan diet reduces the risk of heart disease, a vegan diet promotes weight loss, and a vegan diet reduces the risk of diabetes.
You might have the impression that an argument of this kind would be very complex, but Figure 17.1 indicates that its structure is relatively straightforward. In this diagram, T stands for the thesis; C1, C2, and C3 stand for the main claims that are given as reasons for thinking the thesis is true; and E1, E2, E3, and so on stand for the evidence given for thinking that the main claims (C1, C2, and C3) are true. An arrow from one circle to another indicates that one element of the argument is a reason for believing that another element is true (e.g., E1 is a reason for thinking C1 is true, and C1 is a reason for thinking that T is true).
Figure 17.3: Argumentation Scheme
Adapted from Stuart Edgar. Illustration by Jessica Tang.
Of course, this diagram might not exactly reflect the final structure of your essay. You might not have exactly three main claims to support your thesis, and you might not include exactly three bits of evidence to support each of the main claims. However, you should have at least three main claims to support your thesis. For each of those main claims, you should also have at least one bit of evidence to persuade your audience that the claim is true.
These terms—evidence, claims, and thesis—are useful for clarifying the different levels of an argument. However, you may be familiar with the terms premise and conclusion, which are the terms used in logic. If we use that terminology, then we would say that each bit of evidence (E1, E2, E3, etc.) is a premise because it is a reason for thinking that one of the claims (C1, C2, or C3) is true. The claims (C1, C2, and C3) are therefore conclusions, as they are said to follow logically from the premises (E1, E2, E3, etc.). However, the claims (C1, C2, and C3) are also premises insofar as they are also given as reasons for thinking that the thesis (T) is true. You could therefore call the claims premises/conclusions or subconclusions. The thesis is the main conclusion of the argument.
Fact and Opinion
Facts are statements that can be definitely proven using objective data. The statement that is a fact is absolutely valid. In other words, the statement can be pronounced as true or false. For example, 2 + 2 = 4. This expression identifies a true statement, or a fact, because it can be proved with objective data.
Opinions are personal views or judgments. An opinion is what an individual believes about a particular subject when it’s not possible to know. In an argumentative essay, an opinion must have legitimate support based on adequate evidence from credible sources.
Consider the credibility of expert opinions, as experts in a given field have the knowledge and credentials to make their opinions meaningful to a larger audience. For example, you seek the opinion of your dentist when it comes to the health of your gums, and you seek the opinion of your mechanic when it comes to the maintenance of your car. Both have knowledge and credentials in those respective fields, which is why their opinions matter to you. But the authority of your dentist may be greatly diminished should they offer an opinion about your car, just as you would be less likely to follow the car mechanic’s advice on the maintenance of your teeth.
In your writing, strike a balance between credible facts and authoritative opinions. Relying solely on one or the other will likely lose more of your audience’s goodwill than it gains. Make your argument convincing by using strong, peer-reviewed, reliable evidence from a variety of scholarly sources to support your ideas.
Consider Opposing Ideas
In addition to offering claims that directly support your thesis, it is a good strategy to discuss an argument against your thesis and then attempt to refute it. Make sure that you come up with the strongest argument against your thesis that you can think of, giving the best reasons someone might have for rejecting your thesis. That will make your essay more persuasive because you will show that you have seriously considered the case against your thesis but have still concluded that your thesis is true. Then you cannot be accused of committing the straw man fallacy, which you would commit if you offered a rebuttal only to an easily refuted caricature of the case against your thesis, not the strongest arguments that could be made against it.
If you discuss arguments against your thesis, a good method to use is the concession-refutation approach. In this approach, you first admit that there is some merit to the argument against your thesis, but after you discuss that merit, you explain why you still believe that your thesis is true. Addressing opposing arguments earlier rather than later in your essay allows you to better address ideas that conflict with your own, so you can spend the rest of the essay countering those arguments. This way, you leave your reader thinking about your argument rather than someone else’s. You have the last word. This would be likely to persuade someone who does not already agree with your thesis because you give the impression not that you are merely holding on to your thesis dogmatically but rather that you have seriously considered the objections to your thesis and yet you still have good reasons for maintaining that your thesis is true.
In the essay about a vegan diet, the student could use the concession-refutation approach by first mentioning that some people argue that vegans have trouble obtaining enough iron and vitamin B12. The student could then admit that it is more difficult to get sufficient iron and vitamin B12 from plant-based food sources. However, the student would then provide a counterargument against that objection, probably noting that there are nonetheless foods that vegans can eat that will give them enough iron and vitamin B12 to be healthy.
Remember that after you discuss the strongest argument against your thesis, you always need to provide a counterargument, giving your reasons for thinking that there is something wrong with that argument against your thesis. This rebuttal is essential because in an argumentative essay, you are not just sharing your perspective and then mentioning other possible perspectives; you are trying to persuade the reader that your thesis is true. The point of discussing arguments against your thesis is to indicate that there is something mistaken about even the strongest argument against your thesis and thus to persuade the reader that your thesis is true.
Avoiding ideas that conflict with your own gives the reader the impression that you may be uncertain, fearful, or unaware of opposing ideas. Thus, it is essential that you not only address counterarguments but also do so respectfully. Acknowledging different points of view enhances your credibility with your audience. Your reader knows from the outset that you are aware of opposing ideas and that you are not afraid to give them space. To demonstrate that you are unbiased, present and refute at least one opposing idea.
Acknowledge the Limits of Your Argument
In terms of establishing credibility, it is also helpful to establish the limits of your argument and what you are trying to accomplish. In effect, you concede early on that your argument is not the ultimate authority on a given topic. Such humility can go a long way toward establishing your credibility and earning the trust of your audience. Your reader will know that you are a reasonable writer and will thus be more likely to trust your argument. For example, in the following concessionary statement, the writer advocates for stricter gun control laws but admits it will not solve all of our problems with crime:
Although tougher gun control laws are a powerful first step in decreasing violence on Canadian streets, such legislation alone cannot completely eradicate violence because guns are not the only problem we face.
Such a concession will be welcomed by those who might disagree with this writer’s argument at first glance. To effectively persuade readers, writers must be modest in their goals and humble in their approach to asking readers to consider their argument. Here are some useful phrases of concession.
- although
- granted
- given that
- of course
- still
- though
- with that said
Create an Outline
The following is a template that you can use to create an outline for your argumentative essay. Note that it follows one particular argumentation pattern. Depending on the topic and preference, there are other patterns you could follow. For example, for argumentative essays in which you first establish that the onus is on others to show that your essay’s thesis is wrong, it is better to follow a different pattern. In that case, you could reasonably devote the rest of your essay to refutations of arguments against your thesis.
Template for Outline
- I. Introductory paragraph
- • The topic you have chosen
- • A brief summary of the debate or controversy
- • Your thesis statement (written as a full sentence)
- II. First body paragraph
- • A reasonable objection to your thesis (written in one or more full sentences)
- • The reasons to support this objection (can be written in point form)
- • Your reasons for rejecting this objection (can be written in point form)
- III. Second body paragraph
- • The first main claim to support your thesis (written as a full sentence)
- • The evidence to support your first main claim (can be written in point form)
- IV. Third body paragraph
- • The second main claim to support your thesis (written as a full sentence)
- • The evidence to support your second main claim (can be written in point form)
- V. Fourth body paragraph
- • The third main claim to support your thesis (written as a full sentence)
- • The evidence to support your third main claim (can be written in point form)
- VI. Concluding paragraph
As you work, collect a list of the research sources you plan to use for your essay.
For example, if someone is developing an outline for an argumentative essay with the thesis that the voting age should be lowered to sixteen, that author could first claim that we shouldn’t deny the right to vote to anyone unless there is a good reason to deny them that right. Then the author could follow a pattern that, after the thesis statement, devotes the rest of their essay to refuting the reasons given for keeping the voting age at eighteen (e.g., refuting the claim that people under eighteen don’t have the knowledge or experience needed to vote meaningfully). Before you create an outline for your essay, you might want to revisit Chapter 5.
Sample Outline
The following is an example of an outline that a student could create for an argumentative essay written in response to this assignment: “Basing your argument on evidence from research, argue for or against switching to a vegan diet.” Of course, as this is an outline, it provides only the bare bones of an argument that the student would have to flesh out in the essay. For example, the student would need to explain how a vegan diet reduces the risk of heart disease. This will generally involve citing one or more authoritative sources, such as peer-reviewed journal articles. Therefore, at the end of this outline, there is a list of proposed research sources. Furthermore, throughout the outline, there are notes indicating where those sources would be cited in the essay.
Establish Tone and Style
As in any essay, the way you write and the tone you use in an argumentative essay are very important aspects of your argument. If you are arguing with a person who uses aggressive and inflammatory words, are you more or less likely to listen to the whole argument and ultimately be convinced? If someone is waving his hands and swearing or yelling, the gestures and raised voice may actually distract you from what is being said. Also, when people are extremely animated in their discussions, their audience may become defensive if they do not agree with the ideas presented. In such a case, the audience may then respond in the same way, and no one ends up really hearing other points of view, and no one will be convinced.
On the other hand, if with someone who is calm and controlled, are you more likely to listen and consider the ideas? Also, if the person allows you to give your input and views, you might be more willing to listen to opposing views. While you may not be convinced to change your mind completely, the way the speaker presents the argument (calmly and substantively) creates an environment or situation in which you are more open to discussion.
The same is true when you write. If you choose inflammatory language not appropriate to your audience, the overall impact is almost “bloggish”—like someone ranting on a topic and stating their opinion. This becomes a bigger issue if no substantive evidence or support is given for the opinion. Then the writer seems like a radical expressing views, not someone you can use for credible support.
To effectively persuade your audience, choose your words carefully. While you will need to use assertive language to support your ideas, choose objective words.
Bias in Writing
Everyone has biases on any number of topics. For example, you might have a bias toward wearing black instead of brightly coloured clothes, or wearing jeans rather than formal wear. You might have a bias toward working at night rather than in the morning, or working to deadlines rather than getting tasks done in advance. These are examples of minor biases, of course, but they still indicate preferences and opinions.
Because we all have biases, bias can easily creep into our writing, and we can reveal those biases through the smallest choices. Choosing each word carefully is even more significant in a persuasive paper because you want your reader to view your presentation of ideas as logical and not just a tirade. Using objective and neutral language and evidence and acknowledging you have a possible bias will help you present a well-rounded and developed argument.
The strength of a personal bias is that it can motivate you to construct a strong argument. If you are invested in the topic, you are more likely to care about the piece of writing. Similarly, the more you care, the more time and effort you are apt to put forth and the better the final product will be. The weakness of personal bias is that it can take over the essay—when, for example, you neglect opposing ideas, exaggerate your points, or repeatedly insert yourself ahead of the subject by using the word I too often. Being aware of all three of these pitfalls will help you avoid them.
Handling bias in writing and in daily life can be a useful skill. It will allow you to articulate your own points of view while also defending yourself against unreasonable points of view. The ideal in persuasive writing is to let your reader know your bias, but do not let that bias blind you to the primary components of good argumentation: sound, thoughtful evidence and a respectful, reasonable acknowledgement of opposing views.
The Use of I
The use of the first-person pronoun I in academic and argumentative writing is often a topic of debate, and the acceptance of its usage varies from instructor to instructor. It is difficult to predict the preferences of all your present and future instructors, but consider the effects first-person pronouns can have on your writing. First-person pronouns can make an argument sound overly biased for two reasons:
- • First, the excessive repetition of any word will eventually catch the reader’s attention—and usually not in a good way. The use of I is no different.
- • Second, the use of I in a sentence alters not only the way a sentence might sound but also the composition of the sentence itself. I is often the subject of a sentence. If the subject of the essay is supposed to be, say, smoking, then by inserting yourself into the sentence, you are effectively displacing the subject of the essay into a secondary position.
In the following examples, the subject of the sentence is bolded:
- Smoking is bad.
- I think smoking is bad.
In the first sentence, smoking—the rightful subject—is in the subject position in the sentence. In the second sentence, the insertion of I and think replaces smoking as the subject, which draws attention to I and away from the topic that is supposed to be discussed (smoking). The writer becomes the focus of the sentence. Remember to keep the message (the subject) and the messenger (the writer) separate.
Draft the Essay
With your tone in mind and your outline in hand, write a first draft of an argumentative essay. First, you might want to revisit Chapter 6 to learn strategies for drafting. Use Checklist 17.1: Using Sound Arguments as you write your argumentative essay.
Checklist 17.1: Using Sound Arguments
- Does the draft of the essay contain the following elements?
- ☐ An engaging introduction that introduces the topic and controversy
- ☐ An appropriate narrowed topic that is singular and specific
- ☐ A clear thesis statement that takes a stance on the controversy
- ☐ A thesis that can be supported by evidence
- ☐ At least three distinct claims, each presented in a separate body paragraph
- ☐ A varied range of evidence from credible sources
- ☐ Genuine and respectful acknowledgement and explanation of opposing ideas
- ☐ A style and tone appropriate for the subject and audience
- ☐ Acknowledgement of the argument’s limits
- ☐ A conclusion that summarizes the claims and reinforces the thesis
Visual Elements
In some disciplines, it’s common to see visual elements in an argumentative essay. Adding visual elements to a persuasive argument can strengthen its persuasive effect. However, because conventions in the use of visual elements vary from discipline to discipline, check with your instructor before adding visual elements to your essay. There are two main types of visual elements: quantitative visuals and qualitative visuals.
Quantitative visuals present data graphically. They allow the audience to see statistics spatially. The purpose of using quantitative visuals is to make logical appeals to the audience. For example, sometimes it is easier to understand the disparity in certain statistics if they are displayed graphically. Bar graphs, pie charts, Venn diagrams, histograms, and line graphs are all ways of presenting quantitative data in spatial dimensions.
Qualitative visuals present images that appeal to the audience’s emotions. Photographs and pictorial images are examples of qualitative visuals. Such images often convey a story, and seeing an actual example can carry more power than hearing or reading about the example. For example, one image of a child suffering from malnutrition will likely have more of an emotional impact than pages dedicated to describing that same condition in writing or with graphs.
If you choose to use visual elements to enhance your argument, make sure they are
- • Relevant and essential: Images should help your reader visualize your point.
- • Easy to follow: The reader should not have to work too hard to understand the image.
- • Appropriate to audience, tone, and purpose: Always keep the audience in mind.
- • Appropriately cited and referenced: If you borrow an image from a source, be sure to cite the source.
- • Respectful: If you include disrespectful images, your argument will seem unfair and nonbiased.
- • Limited: If there are too many visual elements in an essay, the images will become more of a distraction than a focal point.
Remember, check with your instructor before adding visual elements to your essay.
Revise and Edit the Essay
After completing the first draft of your argumentative essay, set it aside for a day, and then begin the work of revising and editing, preferably with the help of a peer who can help you identify problems with the arguments. Chapter 7 and Chapter 8 will guide you through the process of revising and editing as well as the peer review process. In addition to following the checklists in those chapters, as you revise, watch for some of the most common mistakes in persuasive writing:
- • Losing perspective
- • Exaggerating so that your writing is so over the top in favour of or against something that you will only be convincing to someone who already thinks the same things
- • Lying knowingly and deliberately: even if you are believed and not found out, you will have to live with the knowledge that apparently the truth would not have been enough to make your case in the eyes of your audience
- • Being disingenuous: like lying, being disingenuous means using falsehoods or fudged truths that you know to be untrue or only partially true to make a case that you obviously do not quite believe in yourself
- • Relying too much on intentional logical fallacies
- • Making claims without evidence
- • Not considering counterarguments
Remember, too, that there are many logical fallacies that can either help or hinder the strength of the persuasiveness of the case the writer is making. Mostly, though, it is best to avoid logical fallacies.
In an argumentative essay, the author intends to make a reader understand and accept the conclusion through a preponderance of evidence and reasoned argument. While it is artificial, more than factual, to fully distinguish argumentation from persuasion and vice versa, for our purposes, an academic argumentative essay aims to project a reasoned point of view supported and explained by evidence in order to advance knowledge and ideas. An argumentative essay can be excellent even when it ultimately fails to convince its reader as long as the reasoned and evidenced arguments logically lead to the conclusion reached.
Key Takeaways
- • The purpose of persuasion/argumentation in writing is to convince or move readers toward a certain point of view or opinion.
- • An argument is a reasoned opinion supported and explained by evidence. To argue, in writing, is to advance knowledge and ideas in a positive way.
- • An effective thesis for an argumentative essay is significant, singular, specific, and supportable.
- • It is essential to address counterarguments and do so respectfully and genuinely.
- • It is helpful to establish the limits of your argument and what you are trying to accomplish through a concession statement.
- • To persuade a skeptical audience, use a wide range of evidence: Scientific studies, opinions from experts, historical precedent, statistics, personal anecdotes, and current events are all types of evidence that help develop an argument.
- • Facts are statements that can be proven using objective data.
- • A statement or claim is not (necessarily) a fact—it just sounds like one.
- • Opinions are personal views or judgments that cannot be proven true or false.
- • Strike a balance between credible facts and authoritative opinions.
- • Word choice and writing style should be appropriate for both the subject and the audience.
- • Acknowledge your bias, but do not let that bias blind you to the primary components of good argumentation: respectfully and reasonably addressing opposing ideas and providing sound, thoughtful evidence to support your stance.
- • Be mindful of using the first-person pronoun I in your writing because it can make your argument sound more biased than it actually is.
- • Quantitative visuals present data graphically and make logical appeals to the audience.
- • Qualitative visuals present images that appeal to the audience’s emotions.
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