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The Importance of Being Monogamous: Notes

The Importance of Being Monogamous
Notes

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Notes

table of contents
  1. Cover
  2. Acknowledgements
  3. One: Creating, Challenging, Imposing, and Defending the Marriage “Fortress”
  4. Two: Customs Not in Common: The Monogamous Ideal and Diverse Marital Landscape of Western Canada
  5. Three: Making Newcomers to Western Canada Monogamous
  6. Four: “A Striking Contrast... Where Perpetuity of Union and Exclusiveness is Not a Rule, at Least Not a Strict Rule”: Plains Aboriginal Marriage
  7. Five: The 1886 “Traffic in Indian Girls” Panic and the Foundation of the Federal Approach to Aboriginal Marriage and Divorce
  8. Six: Creating “Semi-Widows” and “Supernumerary Wives”: Prohibiting Polygamy in Prairie Canada’s Aboriginal Communities
  9. Seven: “Undigested, Conflicting and Inharmonious”: Administering First Nations Marriage and Divorce
  10. Eight: Conclusion
  11. Appendix
  12. Notes
  13. Bibliography
  14. Index

Notes

ONE Creating, Challenging, Imposing, and Defending the Marriage “Fortress”

  1. 1. See for example James Q. Wilson, The Marriage Problem: How Our Culture Has Weakened Families (New York: HarperCollins, 2002).
  2. 2. Nancy Cott, Public Vows: A History of Marriage and Nation (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2000). See also Stephanie Coontz, Marriage, a History: From Obedience to Intimacy, or How Love Conquered Marriage (New York: Viking, 2005).
  3. 3. Cott, Public Vows, 3.
  4. 4. Quoted in W.E. Raney, “Bigamy and Divorces,” The Canadian Law Journal 34 (January–December 1898): 548.
  5. 5. Ibid.
  6. 6. The “Western Canada” of this study is the three prairie provinces with particular focus on the region of southern Alberta. While British Columbia will emerge from time to time, particularly in discussion of the administration of “Indian affairs,” the situation there is somewhat distinct and many of the same issues discussed here have been dealt with in Adele Perry’s excellent study On the Edge of Empire: Gender, Race and the Making of British Columbia, 1849–1871 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2001).
  7. 7. Adele Perry, “Metropolitan Knowledge, Colonial Practice, and Indigenous Womanhood: Missions in Nineteenth-Century British Columbia,” in Contact Zones: Aboriginal and Settler Women in Canada’s Colonial Past, ed. Katie Pickles and Myra Rutherdale (Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 2005), 115.
  8. 8. Quoted in Kathryn M. Daynes, More Wives Than One: Transformation of the Mormon Marriage System, 1840–1910 (Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 2001), 83.
  9. 9. Bettina Bradbury, “Colonial Comparisons: Rethinking Marriage, Civilization, and Nation in the Nineteenth-Century White Settler Societies,” in Rediscovering the British World, ed. Philip Buckner and R. Douglas Francis (Calgary: University of Calgary Press, 2005), 150.
  10. 10. Ibid., 136.
  11. 11. Sarah Carter, “Britishness, ‘Foreignness,’ Women, and Land in Western Canada, 1890s to 1920s,” in “Britishness and Whiteness: Locating Marginal White Identities in the Empire,” special issue, Humanities Research 13, no. 1 (2006): 43–60.
  12. 12. Sylvia Van Kirk, “From ‘Marrying-In’ to ‘Marrying-Out’: Changing Patterns of Aboriginal/non-Aboriginal Marriage in Colonial Canada,” in Rethinking Canada: The Promise of Women’s History, 5th ed., ed. Mona Gleason and Adele Perry (Don Mills: Oxford University Press, 2006), 121. See also Sylvia Van Kirk, “Many Tender Ties”: Women and Fur Trade Society, 1670–1870 (Winnipeg: Watson and Dwyer Press, 1980); Adele Perry, On the Edge of Empire: Gender, Race and the Making of British Columbia, 1849–1871 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2001).
  13. 13. James G. Snell, “The ‘White Life’ For Two: The Defense of Marriage and Sexual Morality in Canada, 1890–1914,” in Canadian Family History: Selected Readings, ed. Bettina Bradbury (Toronto: Copp Clark Pitman, 1992), 381–400.
  14. 14. Quoted in Terry L. Chapman, “Women, Sex, and Marriage in Western Canada, 1890–1920,” Alberta History 33, no. 4 (Autumn 1985): 2.
  15. 15. Elizabeth Thompson, “Natives Need Bigger Role in Justice, Cotler Says,” National Post, 22 November 2004.
  16. 16. The Globe and Mail (Toronto), “Don’t Kiss Off Marriage,” 18 June 2003.

TWO  Customs Not in Common

  1. 1. John Mackie, The Heart of the Prairie (London: James Nisbet, 1899).
  2. 2. Ibid., 267–68.
  3. 3. Ibid., 271.
  4. 4. For an exploration of these themes in the history of the American West see William R. Handley, Marriage, Violence, and the Nation in the American Literary West (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002).
  5. 5. John D. Higginbotham, When the West Was Young: Historical Reminiscences of the Early Canadian West (Toronto: The Ryerson Press, 1933), 188.
  6. 6. Ibid., 194.
  7. 7. Lethbridge News, 18 December 1886.
  8. 8. Higginbotham, When the West Was Young, 89.
  9. 9. Ibid., 88.
  10. 10. Lethbridge News, 9 March 1887.
  11. 11. Constance Backhouse, Petticoats and Prejudice: Women and Law in Nineteenth-Century Canada (Toronto: The Osgoode Society, 1991), 176.
  12. 12. Ibid., 174.
  13. 13. For a description of a similar situation in the United States, see Candice Lewis Bredbenner, A Nationality of Her Own: Women, Marriage, and the Law of Citizenship (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998); see also Linda K. Kerber, No Constitutional Right to Be Ladies: Women and the Obligations of Citizenship (New York: Hill and Wang, 1998).
  14. 14. Catherine Cavanaugh, “The Limitations of the Pioneering Partnership: The Alberta Campaign for Homestead Dower, 1909–1925,” in Making Western Canada: Essays on European Colonization and Settlement, ed. Catherine Cavanaugh and Jeremy Mouat (Toronto: Garamond Press, 1996), 191; see also R.E. Hawkins, “Lillian Beynon Thomas, Woman’s Suffrage, and the Return of Dower to Manitoba,” Manitoba Law Journal 27, no. 1 (1999): 45–113.
  15. 15. Quoted in Terry L. Chapman, “Women, Sex, and Marriage in Western Canada, 1890–1920,” Alberta History 33 (Autumn 1985): 2.
  16. 16. Ibid.
  17. 17. Henrietta Muir Edwards, Legal Status of Women of Alberta (Edmonton: Office of the Alberta Attorney-General, 1921), 24.
  18. 18. The jurisdiction of the Canadian Parliament in reference to divorce is declared in section 91, sub-section 26 of the British North America Act (BNA). At the time of Confederation in 1867, courts exercising jurisdiction in divorce already existed in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, and these were permitted to continue under section 129 of the BNA. The courts of Prince Edward Island and British Columbia similarly exercised jurisdiction in divorce at the time of admission to Confederation, and they continued to do so afterward. Applications to Parliament for divorce were then confined to persons domiciled in Quebec, Ontario, Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Alberta, and the Yukon Territory. See Robert V. Sinclair, The Rules and Practice Before the Parliament of Canada Upon Bills of Divorce (Toronto: Carswell, 1915), 1–2.
  19. 19. Quoted in Henry Finlay, “Victorian Sexual Morality: A Case of Double Standards,” Australian Journal of Law and Society 14 (1998–99): 49.
  20. 20. Alison Prentice et al., Canadian Women: A History (Toronto: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich, 1988), 147, 254–55.
  21. 21. The Globe (Toronto), 11 July 1889.
  22. 22. Anonymous, How to Be Happy Though Married: Being a Handbook to Marriage by a Graduate in the University of Matrimony (London: T. Fisher Unwin, 1896), 5. My copy is inscribed “To Miss Jennie Moffatt, in view of her marriage in the Far West.”
  23. 23. B.G. Jefferis and J.L. Nichols, The Household Guide or Domestic Cyclopedia (Toronto: J.L. Nichols, 1897), 22.
  24. 24. “Married Happiness: Loves and Marriages of Eminent Persons,” The Globe (Toronto), 12 April 1890.
  25. 25. Canadian Churchman 72 (September 1883): 599. My own grandmother, Nell (Weaver) Carter, when married in 1915 in a Church of England ceremony at Greenhithe, Kent, promised to “nobey” her husband.
  26. 26. Canadian Churchman (4 May 1893): 276.
  27. 27. Anonymous, Marriage and Home, or Proposal and Espousal: A Christian Treatise on the Most Sacred Relations to Mortals Known: Love, Marriage, Home etc. (Brantford, ON, Port Adelaide and Melbourne, Australia: Bradley, Garretson, 1888).
  28. 28. Rev. Ross C. Houghton, Women of the Orient: An Account of the Religious, Intellectual and Social Condition of Women in Japan, China, Indian, Egypt, Syria and Turkey (Cincinnati: Hitchcock and Walden, 1877).
  29. 29. The Presbyterian Record (May 1910): 231.
  30. 30. W.H. Withrow, “Every-day Life in Bible Lands: Marriage and Funeral Customs,” The Methodist Magazine and Review 43 (January–June 1896): 3.
  31. 31. Anonymous, The Ladies Book of Useful Information: Compiled From Many Sources (London, Ont.: s.n., 1896): 116.
  32. 32. John David Pulsipher, “The Americanization of Monogamy: Mormons, Native Americans, and the Nineteenth-Century Perception that Polygamy was a Threat to Democracy” (PhD diss., University of Minnesota, 1999), 122.
  33. 33. Ibid.
  34. 34. Sarah Carter, Lost Harvests: Prairie Indian Reserve Farmers and Government Policy (Montreal: McGill-Queen’s Press, 1990), 212–13.
  35. 35. Nancy Cott, Public Vows: A History of Marriage and the Nation (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2000), 1.
  36. 36. Ibid., 3.
  37. 37. Debate in the Senate on the Bill Relating to Marriage with Deceased Wife’s Sister (Ottawa: A. and Geo. C. Holland, Senate Reporters, 1879), 5.
  38. 38. Ibid., 4–5.
  39. 39. Canadian Churchman (14 September 1893): 547.
  40. 40. Ibid. (13 October 1892): 612.
  41. 41. The Far West (1902): 155.
  42. 42. James G. Snell, “The ‘White Life for Two’: The Defence of Marriage and Sexual Morality in Canada, 1890–1914,” in Canadian Family History: Selected Readings, ed. Bettina Bradbury (Toronto: Copp Clark Pitman, 1992), 381.
  43. 43. Annalee Gölz, “Family Matters: The Canadian Family and the State in the Postwar Period,” Left History 1, no. 2 (Fall 1993): 9.
  44. 44. Ann Laura Stoler, “Cultivating Bourgeois Bodies and Racial Selves,” in Cultures of Empire: Colonizers in Britain and the Empire in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries, ed. Catherine Hall (New York: Routledge, 2000), 87–88.
  45. 45. Sarah Carter, Capturing Women: The Manipulation of Cultural Imagery in Canada’s Prairie West (Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 1997), 166–83.
  46. 46. Sylvia Van Kirk, “Many Tender Ties”: Women in Fur-Trade Society, 1670–1870 (Winnipeg: Watson and Dwyer, 1980); Jennifer S.H. BROWN, Strangers in Blood: Fur Trade Company Families in Indian Country (Vancouver: UBC Press, 1980).
  47. 47. Jennifer S.H. Brown, “Partial Truths: A Closer Look at Fur Trade Marriage,” in From Rupert’s Land to Canada, ed. Theodore Binnema et al. (Edmonton: The University of Alberta Press, 2002), 61.
  48. 48. Van Kirk, “Many Tender Ties” 38.
  49. 49. Ibid., 115.
  50. 50. Ibid., 116.
  51. 51. Quoted in Ibid., 115.
  52. 52. Ibid., 119.
  53. 53. Quoted in Ibid., 119.
  54. 54. Donna McDonald, Lord Strathcona: A Biography of Donald Alexander Smith (Toronto: Dundurn Press, 1996), 101.
  55. 55. Ibid.
  56. 56. Ibid., 448.
  57. 57. Ibid., 402.
  58. 58. Ibid., 119.
  59. 59. Irene Spry, ed., “The ‘Memories’ of George William Sanderson, 1846–1936,” Canadian Ethnic Studies 17, no. 2 (1985): 124.
  60. 60. Lyndel Meikle, ed., Very Close to Trouble: The Johnny Grant Memoir (Pullman: Washington State University Press, 1996), vii.
  61. 61. Ibid., 79–80.
  62. 62. Quoted in Ibid., 80.
  63. 63. Quoted in W.L. Morton, Manitoba: A History, 2nd ed. (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1967), 91.
  64. 64. Adele Perry, On the Edge of Empire: Gender, Race, and the Making of British Columbia (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2001).
  65. 65. Lyle Dick, “Male Homosexuality in Saskatchewan’s Settlement Era: The 1895 Case of Regina’s ‘Oscar Wilde’” (paper presented to the eighty-fifth meeting of the Canadian Historical Association, York University, 30 May 2006), 14.
  66. 66. Cecilia Danysk, “‘A Bachelor’s Paradise’: Homesteaders, Hired Hands, and the Construction of Masculinity, 1880–1930,” in Making Western Canada: Essays on European Colonization and Settlement, ed. Catherine Cavanaugh and Jeremy Mouat (Toronto: Garamond Press, 1996), 154–85.
  67. 67. Carter, Capturing Women, 166–81.
  68. 68. Ibid., 166–67.
  69. 69. Lethbridge News, 9 October 1895.
  70. 70. Ibid., 10 May 1900.
  71. 71. The Gazette (Fort Macleod), 13 January 1883; 24 January 1883; 5 March 1884; 14 March 1884; 19 September 1884; 3 October 1884; 20 October 1884.
  72. 72. Grant MacEwan, Mighty Women: Stories of Western Canadian Pioneers (1975; repr., Vancouver: Douglas and McIntyre, 1995), 119–26.
  73. 73. The Imperial Colonist 8, no. 98 (February 1910): 22–24; The Imperial Colonist 8, no. 99 (March, 1910): 39–42; The Imperial Colonist 8, no. 100 (1910): 52–57.
  74. 74. Lucy Bland, Banishing the Beast: Feminism, Sex and Morality, (1995; repr., London and New York: Tauris Parke Paperbacks, 2002), 151, 171.
  75. 75. Canadian Churchman (17 November 1892): 700.
  76. 76. The Gazette, 14 March 1889.
  77. 77. Lethbridge News, 10 February 1891.
  78. 78. Cavanaugh, “The Limitations of the Pioneering Partnership,” 211.
  79. 79. Moose Jaw Times, 3 July 1908.
  80. 80. Saskatchewan Herald (Battleford), 15 January 1887.
  81. 81. Edwin Allen to Wm. Allen, 14 October 1890, Records of the Customs Department, v. 432, Coutts Letterbooks, Department of National Revenue (RG 16), Library and Archives Canada (LAC).
  82. 82. Mrs. L. McInnis to the Minister of Justice, 15 March 1917, file 465–485 (1917), vol. 210, series A-2, Department of Justice (RG 13), LAC.
  83. 83. Deputy Minister of Justice to Mr. L. McInnis, 21 March 1917, file 465–485 (1917), vol. 210, series A-2, RG 13, LAC.
  84. 84. Kathryn M. Daynes, More Wives Than One: Transformation of the Mormon Marriage System, 1840–1910 (Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 2001), 73.
  85. 85. Ibid., 203–04.
  86. 86. Sarah Barringer Gordon, “‘The Liberty of Self-Degradation’: Polygamy, Woman Suffrage, and Consent in Nineteenth-Century America,” Journal of American History 83, no. 3 (December 1996): 842.
  87. 87. Ibid., 835.
  88. 88. Jeffrey Nichols, Prostitution, Polygamy, and Power: Salt Lake City, 1847–1918 (Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 2002), 20.
  89. 89. Richard White, “It’s Your Misfortune and None of My Own:” A New History of the American West (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1991), 174.
  90. 90. Daynes, More Wives Than One, 209.
  91. 91. Manitoba Free Press, 7 September 1881.
  92. 92. Dan Erickson, “Alberta Polygamists? The Canadian Climate and Response to the Introduction of Mormonism’s ‘Peculiar Institution,’” Pacific Northwest Quarterly 86, no. 4 (Fall 1995): 174.
  93. 93. Quoted in John R. Hicken, “Events Leading to the Settlement of the Communities of Cardston, Magrath, Stirling and Raymond, Alberta” (master’s thesis, Utah State University, 1968), 31–32.
  94. 94. Canada, House of Commons Debates (10 April 1890) at 3180.
  95. 95. Ibid., p. 3177.
  96. 96. Saskatchewan Herald, 30 April 1890.
  97. 97. Canada, House of Commons Debates (3 April 1889) at 980.
  98. 98. Ibid. (10 April 1890), p. 3178.
  99. 99. James S. Woodsworth, Strangers Within Our Gates: Coming Canadians (Toronto: F.C. Stephenson, Methodist Mission Rooms, 1909), facing p. 78.
  100. 100. Ibid., 80–81.
  101. 101. Ibid., 86.
  102. 102. Robert J. McCue, “Anthony Maitland Stenhouse, Bachelor ‘Polygamist,’” American History and Life 23, no. 1 (1990): 108–25.
  103. 103. Quoted in Ibid., 118.
  104. 104. Quoted in Ibid., 119.
  105. 105. The Gazette, 10 January 1889.
  106. 106. Edmonton Bulletin, 21 December 1889.
  107. 107. Ibid.
  108. 108. Nichols, Prostitution, Polygamy and Power, 17–18.
  109. 109. Quoted in Donald G. Godfrey, “Zina Presendia Young Williams Card: Brigham’s Daughter, Cardston’s First Lady,” Journal of Mormon History 23, no. 2 (1997): 110–11.
  110. 110. Quoted in Ibid., 115.
  111. 111. Ibid., 125.
  112. 112. Ibid., 116. In 1898 Zina Card joined her sister Susan Gates on a speaking tour through the eastern United States.
  113. 113. S.B. Steele, Forty Years in Canada: Reminiscences of the Great North-West (Winnipeg: Russell Lang; London: Herbert Jenkins, 1915), 269.
  114. 114. The Calgary Tribune, 8 August 1888.
  115. 115. Higginbotham, When the West Was Young, 129–30.
  116. 116. Nichols, Prostitution, Polygamy and Power, 16–17.
  117. 117. Annie Clark Tanner, A Mormon Mother (Utah: University of Utah Library Tanner Trust Fund, 1983), 151.
  118. 118. Nichols, Prostitution, Polygamy and Power, 19.
  119. 119. Quoted in Ibid., 21.
  120. 120. Ibid., 17.
  121. 121. The Leader (Regina), “Notes By the Way,” 9 September 1890.
  122. 122. Ibid., “The Mormons,” letter to the editor.
  123. 123. Koozma J. Tarasoff, Traditional Doukhobor Folkways: An Ethnographic and Biographic Record of Prescribed Behaviour, Paper No. 20 (Ottawa: National Museum of Canada, Canadian Centre for Folk Culture Studies, 1977), 1.
  124. 124. George Woodcock and Ivan Avakumovic, The Doukhobors, Carleton Library no. 108 (Ottawa: McClelland and Stewart, 1977), 170.
  125. 125. Aylmer Maude, A Peculiar People: The Doukhobors (London: Grant Richards, 1904), 17.
  126. 126. Ibid., 201.
  127. 127. Frank Yeigh, Through the Heart of Canada (Toronto: Henry Frowde, 1910), 184.
  128. 128. Saskatchewan Herald, 3 February 1899.
  129. 129. Jean Blewett, “The Doukhobor Woman,” in Canada’s West and Farther West, ed. Frank Carrel (Quebec: The Telegraph Printing Co., 1911), 223–24. Previously published in Collier’s Weekly 9 (n.d.).
  130. 130. Mrs. Thomas Lavington, “Reminiscences of Life on the Prairies, 1910–1914,” 1954, p. 4, manuscript, LAC.
  131. 131. Saskatchewan Herald, 3 February 1899.
  132. 132. Maude, A Peculiar People, 318.
  133. 133. Emily Murphy, Janey Canuck in the West (1910; repr., Toronto: McClelland and Stewart, 1910), 45–46.
  134. 134. Blewett, “The Doukhobor Woman,” 223.
  135. 135. Ibid.
  136. 136. Frances Swyripa, Wedded to the Cause: Ukrainian-Canadian Women and Ethnic Identity, 1891–1991 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1993), 35.
  137. 137. Ibid.
  138. 138. Quoted in Swyripa, 78.
  139. 139. Ibid., 35.
  140. 140. Ibid., 87.
  141. 141. Canada, Report of the Royal Commission on Chinese Immigration: Report and Evidence (Ottawa: Printed by Order of the Commission, 1885), 45.
  142. 142. The Leader, 26 February 1930.
  143. 143. Lethbridge Daily Herald, 8 April 1911 and 14 September 1911.
  144. 144. Edmonton Bulletin, 1 November 1884.
  145. 145. Admission of Wat or Kok Shee or Meo Wong Way, file 2419–2.43, vol. 263, RG 13, LAC.
  146. 146. Robert A.J. McDonald, Making Vancouver: Class, Status and Social Boundaries, 1863–1913 (Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 1996), 215.
  147. 147. Anonymous, “A Quaker District,” Saskatchewan History 16, no. 1 (Winter 1963): 36.
  148. 148. Quoted in Ibid.
  149. 149. The Daily Free Press (Winnipeg), 11 May 1877.
  150. 150. Baha Abu-Laban, An Olive Branch on the Family Tree: The Arabs in Canada (Toronto: McClelland and Stewart, 1980), 61.
  151. 151. Ibid., 28–29.
  152. 152. Julia Clancy-Smith, “Islam, Gender, and Identities in the Making of French Algeria, 1830–1962,” in Domesticating the Empire: Race, Gender and Family Life in French and Dutch Colonialism, ed. Julia Clancy-Smith and Frances Gouda (Charlottesville and London: University Press of Virginia, 1998), 167.
  153. 153. Alex MacDonald, Practical Utopians: The Lives and Writings of Saskatchewan Cooperative Pioneers Ed and Will Paynter (Regina: Canadian Plains Research Center, 2004), 27.
  154. 154. Anthony Rasporich, “Utopia, Sect, and Millennium in Western Canada, 1870–1940,” Prairie Forum 12, no. 2 (Fall 1987): 227.
  155. 155. Canadian Churchman (15 January 1891), 36.
  156. 156. Quoted in W.E. Raney, “Bigamy and Divorces,” The Canada Law Journal 34 (January–December 1898): 548.
  157. 157. George H. Napheys, The Physical Life of Woman: Advice to the Maiden, Wife and Mother (Toronto: Maclear and Co., 1871), 55.
  158. 158. The Globe, 11 July 1889.
  159. 159. Canadian Churchman (13 October 1892), 612.
  160. 160. The Regina Leader, 20 May 1890.
  161. 161. Paula Petrik, “If She Be Content: The Development of Montana Divorce Law, 1865–1907,” The Western Historical Quarterly 18, no. 3 (July 1987): 264.
  162. 162. Ibid.
  163. 163. Ibid., 263.
  164. 164. Ibid., 285.
  165. 165. Ibid., 283, 285.
  166. 166. Kathleen Wilson, “Empire, Gender and Modernity in the Eighteenth Century,” in Gender and Empire ed. Phillipa Levine (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004), 25.

THREE Making Newcomers to Western Canada Monogamous

  1. 1. Ann Laura Stoler, “Cultivating Bourgeois Bodies and Racial Selves,” in Cultures of Empire: Colonizers in Britain and the Empire in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries, ed. Catherine Hall (New York: Routledge, 2000), 90.
  2. 2. Joan Perkin, Women and Marriage in Nineteenth-Century England (London: Routledge, 1989), 1.
  3. 3. Henry H. Foster, “Indian and Common Law Marriages,” American Indian Law Review 3 (1975): 85–87.
  4. 4. Nancy Cott, Public Vows: A History of Marriage and Nation (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2000), 32.
  5. 5. Ibid.
  6. 6. E.P. Thompson, Customs in Common: Studies in Traditional Popular Culture (New York: The New Press, 1993), 404–66.
  7. 7. Ibid., 404.
  8. 8. Ibid., 406.
  9. 9. Ibid., 443.
  10. 10. Quoted in Ibid., 462.
  11. 11. Quoted in Henry Finlay, “Victorian Sexual Morality: A Case of Double Standards,” Australian Journal of Law and Society 14 (1988–99): 59.
  12. 12. Quoted in Foster, “Indian and Common Law Marriages,” 87.
  13. 13. An Ordinance Respecting Marriage, North-West Territories, No. 9 of 1878, Canadian Inventory of Historic Microreproductions, no. 52120.
  14. 14. Cott, Public Vows, 6.
  15. 15. Officer in command of Fort Walsh to Lieutenant Governor, North-West Territories, 5 August 1880, vol. 2235, series B-3, Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RG 18), Library and Archives Canada (LAC).
  16. 16. Sarah Carter, Capturing Women: The Manipulation of Cultural Imagery in Canada’s Prairie West (Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 1997), 158–93.
  17. 17. Letter, Thomas Mitchell to Lieutenant Governor E. Dewdney, 1 October 1886, file 36528, vol. 3774, Department of Indian Affairs (RG 10), LAC.
  18. 18. Sarah Carter, “Categories and Terrains of Exclusion: Constructing the ‘Indian Woman’ in the Early Settlement Era in Western Canada,” Great Plains Quarterly 13, no. 3 (Summer 1993): 154.
  19. 19. Colin D. Howell, “Arthur Alexander Reid,” Dictionary of Canadian Biography, Vol. 14 (1911–1920), (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1998), 864.
  20. 20. A.P. Reid, “The Mixed or ‘Halfbreed’ Races of North-Western Canada,” Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland 4 (1875): 45–52. Thanks to Donald B. Smith, Department of History, University of Calgary, for references to the work of Alexander Reid.
  21. 21. Ibid., 46.
  22. 22. Ibid., 47.
  23. 23. Ibid., 46.
  24. 24. George H. Napheys, The Physical Life of Woman: Advice to the Maiden, Wife and Mother (Toronto: Maclear & Company, 1871), 53.
  25. 25. Fort Macleod Gazette, 8 February 1887.
  26. 26. See contents of file 1590, vol. 3600, RG 10, LAC.
  27. 27. Hayter Reed to deputy superintendent general of Indian Affairs, 6 July 1889, file 792–1889, vol. 74, Department of Justice (RG 13), LAC.
  28. 28. Hayter Reed to E.L. Newcombe, 9 March 1894, file 32345, vol. 3762, RG 10, LAC.
  29. 29. Petition to Hon. Theodore Davie, ca. 1895, file 32345, vol. 3762, RG 10, LAC.
  30. 30. Hayter Reed to T. Mayne Daly, superintendent general of Indian Affairs, 8 March 1896, file 32345, vol. 3762, RG 10, LAC.
  31. 31. “List of Employees,” file 31061, vol. 3755, RG 10, LAC.
  32. 32. John Hawkes, The Story of Saskatchewan and Its People (Regina: S.J. Clarke Publishing Co., 1924), 2:80.
  33. 33. Noted in letter, Mitchell to Dewdney, 1 October 1886, file 36528, vol. 8774, RG 10, LAC.
  34. 34. Edmonton Bulletin, 5 January 1889.
  35. 35. Regina Leader, 18 December 1888.
  36. 36. Ibid., 1 January 1889.
  37. 37. Ibid.
  38. 38. Regina Leader, 25 December 1888.
  39. 39. Ibid., 4 December 1888.
  40. 40. Ibid., 29 January 1889.
  41. 41. Peter Boag, “Thinking Like Mount Rushmore: Sexuality and Gender in the Republican Landscape,” in Seeing Nature Through Gender, ed. Virginia J. Scharff (Kansas City: University of Kansas Press, 2003), 44.
  42. 42. Ibid., 46.
  43. 43. Cecilia Danysk, “‘A Bachelor’s Paradise’: Homesteaders, Hired Hands, and the Construction of Masculinity, 1880–1930,” in Making Western Canada: Essays On European Colonization and Settlement, ed. Catherine Cavanaugh and Jeremy Mouat (Toronto: Garamond Press, 1996), 157.
  44. 44. Ronald Rees, New and Naked Land: Making the Prairies Home (Saskatoon: Western Producer Prairie Books, 1988), 68–85.
  45. 45. John McLaren, “The Failed Experiments: The Demise of Doukhobor Systems of Communal Property Landholding in Saskatchewan and British Columbia, 1899–1925,” in Despotic Dominion: Property Rights in British Settler Colonies, ed. John McLaren et al. (Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 2005), 222–47.
  46. 46. Yosse Katz and John C. Lehr, The Last Best West: Essays on the Historical Geography of the Canadian Prairies (Jerusalem: The Magnes Press, The Hebrew University, 1999), 132.
  47. 47. File 105/1895, vol. 2377, E. Newcombe to L. Pereria, 31 May 1895, RG 13, LAC.
  48. 48. File 1895—242, vol. 2277, deputy minister of justice to the secretary, Department of the Interior, 5 March 1895, Department of the Interior (RG 15), LAC.
  49. 49. Memorandum, Dominion land ruling, no. 4369, 10 February 1921, RG 15, LAC.
  50. 50. C. Herrman to W.D. Scott, n.d., (1919), file 80212 pt. 6, vol. 198, Department of Immigration (RG 76), LAC.
  51. 51. Ibid., W.D. Scott to C. Herrman, 6 March 1919.
  52. 52. File 1895–432, vol. 97, RG 13, LAC.
  53. 53. Ibid., E.J. Newcombe to secretary, Department of the Interior, 3 May 1895.
  54. 54. Edmonton Bulletin, 1 August 1895.
  55. 55. C.H. Stout, From Frontier Days in Leduc and District: Sixty-Five Years of Progress, 1891–1956 (Leduc: Representative Publishers, 1956), 121.
  56. 56. Canada, House of Commons Debates (15 March 1907) at 4813–4.
  57. 57. Dominion land ruling, no. 4171, vol. 1971, Department of the Interior circular letter, 21 July 1920, RG 15, LAC.
  58. 58. Mrs. Thomas McNeil to W. Roche, 6 March 1913, vol. 1105, file 2816596, pt. 1, RG 15, LAC.
  59. 59. H. Elaine Lindgren, Land in Her Own Name: Women as Homesteaders in North Dakota (Norman and London: University of Oklahoma Press, 1996).
  60. 60. James Muhn, “Women and the Homestead Act: Land Department Administration of a Legal Imbroglio, 1863–1934,” Western Legal History 7, no. 2 (Summer/Fall 1994): 286.
  61. 61. Memorandum, 8 November 1894, file interim 25: 74/1896, vol. 2247, RG 13, LAC.
  62. 62. Canada, House of Commons Debates (30 April 1910) at 8490.
  63. 63. Georgina Binnie-Clark, Wheat and Woman (1914; repr., Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1979), 308.
  64. 64. Mabel Durham, Canada’s Welcome to Women (London: Canadian Pacific Railway, n.d.), 5.
  65. 65. Quoted in Joyce Litz, The Montana Frontier: One Woman’s West (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2004), 61.
  66. 66. Grant MacEwan, Mighty Women: Stories of Western Canadian Pioneers (1975; repr., Vancouver: Douglas and McIntyre, 1995), 119–26.
  67. 67. Eva Delday, Brooks Beautiful–Bountiful (Calgary: D.W. Friesen and Sons, 1975), 197.
  68. 68. The Regina Leader, 31 July 1888.
  69. 69. See Marilyn Barber, Immigrant Domestic Servants in Canada (Ottawa: Canadian Historical Association, 1991).
  70. 70. Katie Pickles, “Empire Settlement and Single British Women as New Zealand Domestic Servants During the 1920s,” New Zealand Journal of History 35, no. 1 (2001): 23.
  71. 71. Anna Davin, “Imperialism and Motherhood,” in Tensions of Empire: Colonial Cultures in a Bourgeois World, ed. Frederick Cooper and Ann Laura Stoler (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1997), 87–151.
  72. 72. Quoted in Danysk, “A Bachelor’s Paradise,” 155.
  73. 73. The Regina Leader, 31 July 1888.
  74. 74. Rural Municipality of Rosser Centennial History Book Committee, The First Hundred Years, 1893–1993: Rural Municipality of Rosser (Winnipeg: Herff Jones Canada Inc., 1993), 3.
  75. 75. Edmonton Bulletin, 26 January 1884.
  76. 76. Manitoba Daily Free Press, 30 August 1887. See also Carter, Capturing Women, 3–4.
  77. 77. The Regina Leader, 30 August 1887 and 13 September 1887.
  78. 78. Ibid., 13 September 1887.
  79. 79. Lyle Dick, “Male Homosexuality in Saskatchewan’s Settlement Era: The 1895 Case of Regina’s ‘Oscar Wilde’” (paper presented to the eighty-fifth meeting of the Canadian Historical Association, York University, 30 May 2006), 6; Square Butte Tribune, (Montana), 13 May, 1921.
  80. 80. Ditlew M. Frederiksen, The Land Laws of Canada and the Land Experience of the United States (s.l: s.n, 1907), Peel Collection, microform, no. 1932: 10, 18.
  81. 81. Ibid., 11.
  82. 82. Moose Jaw Times, 25 August 1908.
  83. 83. Ibid., 21 August 1908.
  84. 84. Dick, “Male Homosexuality,” 14.
  85. 85. Geo. H. Napheys, The Physical Life of Woman: Advice to Maiden, Wife and Mother (Toronto: Maclear and Company, 1871), 56.
  86. 86. C.C. Furley, “The Physiology of Mormonism,” Canada Lancet 1, no. 5 (July 1863): 35.
  87. 87. A.M. Burgess to Charles O. Card, 24 January 1890, Order in Council no. 1890–0828, Privy Council Office Series A–1–a, vol. 558, RG 10, LAC.
  88. 88. Charles O. Card to A.M. Burgess, 28 February 1890, Order in Council no. 1890–0828, Privy Council Office Series A–1–a, vol. 558, RG 10, LAC.
  89. 89. Quoted in Brian Champion, “Mormon Polygamy: Parliamentary Concerns, 1889–90,” Alberta History 35, no. 1 (Spring 1987): 11.
  90. 90. Quoted in Robert J. McCue, “Anthony Maitland Stenhouse, Bachelor ‘Polygamist,’” American History and Life 23, no. 1 (1990): 120.
  91. 91. Ibid.
  92. 92. Debates of the Senate of the Dominion of Canada, 1890 (26 February 1890) at 142.
  93. 93. McCue., “Anthony Maitland Stenhouse,” 121.
  94. 94. Dan Erickson, “Alberta Polygamists? The Canadian Climate and Response to the Introduction of Mormonism’s ‘Peculiar Institution,’” Pacific Northwest Quarterly 86, no. 4 (Fall 1995): 162.
  95. 95. Quoted in Champion, “Mormon Polygamy?” 16.
  96. 96. Kathryn M. Daynes, More Wives Than One: Transformation of the Mormon Marriage System, 1840–1910 (Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 2001), 83.
  97. 97. Quoted in Allen Connery, ed., As Reported in the Herald (Calgary: Calgary Herald, 1982), 35. Original story in Calgary Herald, 18 April 1888.
  98. 98. Letter, S.B. Steele to the Commissioner, NWMP (North-West Mounted Police), 4 December 1889, file 250–90, vol. 41, Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RG 18), LAC. Steele reported, “[T]he Mormons are believed by almost all of the people in the district to be practising polygamy in secret, there are many reasons for believing such to be the case, the number of women of the same age, or nearly so, in several of the houses, the fact that several of them have pretended to be married to certain parties who were away and although the men have been absent for more than a year, children being born in the interval, as many as fourteen months after the departure of the so-called husband... Constables and others have reported that they have seen members of the Mormon Church using the same room and bed as the women whose supposed husbands were away from the district.”
  99. 99. Missions de la Congrégation des missionaries Oblats de Marie Immaculée (Paris: Typographie A. Hennuyer, 1897), 402. Thanks to Melanie Méthot for her translation.
  100. 100. William M. Baker, ed., Pioneer Policing in Southern Alberta: Deane of the Mounties, 1888–1914 (Calgary: Historical Society of Alberta, 1993), 118.
  101. 101. Ibid., 120.
  102. 102. Quoted in Erickson, “Alberta Polygamists?” 162.
  103. 103. Annie Clark Tanner, A Mormon Mother (Utah: University of Utah Library Tanner Trust Fund, 1983), 221.
  104. 104. Erickson, “Alberta Polygamists?” 162.
  105. 105. Picturesque Cardston and Environments: A Story of Colonization and Progress in Southern Alberta (Cardston: N.W. Macleod, 1900).
  106. 106. “Interesting Facts About Alberta Mormons: G.C. Porter Writes in the Toronto World his Ideas on the Mormon Settlement in the Southern Portion of Alberta,” The Daily Herald (Calgary), 7 June 1904.
  107. 107. Henrietta Muir Edwards, Legal Status of Women of Alberta (Edmonton: University of Alberta Extension, 1917), 13.
  108. 108. Ordinances of the North-West Territories, Passed in the Third Session of the Fourth Legislative Assembly (Regina: John A. Reid, Government Printer, 1901), 2–6.
  109. 109. Ibid., 40.
  110. 110. Regina Leader Post, 6 June 1901.
  111. 111. Ibid.
  112. 112. Manitoba Morning Free Press (Winnipeg), 10 June 1901.
  113. 113. George Woodcock and Ivan Avakumovic, The Doukhobors, Carleton Library no. 108 (Ottawa: McClelland and Stewart, 1977), 210.
  114. 114. The Evening Capital (Saskatoon), 6 May 1911.
  115. 115. Ibid., 10 May 1911.
  116. 116. Frances Swyripa, Wedded to the Cause: Ukrainian-Canadian Women and Ethnic Identity, 1891–1991 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1993), 35.
  117. 117. Ibid., 78–79.
  118. 118. Edmonton Bulletin, 24 April 1899.
  119. 119. Cynthia R. Comacchio, The Infinite Bonds of Family: Domesticity in Canada, 1850–1940 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1999), 61.
  120. 120. John E. Crankshaw and Alexandre Chevalier, Crankshaw’s Criminal Code of Canada, 5th ed. (Toronto: The Carswell Co., 1924), 370.
  121. 121. Ibid., 377.
  122. 122. Fort Macleod Gazette, 1 May 1890.
  123. 123. Ibid.
  124. 124. Ibid.
  125. 125. Debates of the Senate of the Dominion of Canada (16 April 1890) at 414.
  126. 126. Ibid., 2:412.
  127. 127. Ibid., 2:404.
  128. 128. Debates of the House of Commons of the Dominion of Canada (21 April 1890) at 3695.
  129. 129. Ibid., 30: 3698.
  130. 130. The Globe (Toronto), 22 April 1890.
  131. 131. Secretary, Department of Justice, to Florence Fraser, 6 June 1912, file 1912–1914, vol. 173, series A-2, RG 13, LAC.
  132. 132. Hazel Cooke to the Minister of Justice, 24 January 1921, file 211–231, 1921, vol. 255, RG 13, LAC.
  133. 133. E.L. Newcombe to Hazel Cooke, 1 February 1921, file 211–231, 1921, vol. 255, RG 13, LAC.
  134. 134. Florence Fraser to C.F. Doherty, 3 June 1912, file 1912–1914, vol. 173, series A–2, RG 13, LAC.
  135. 135. See file 1912–1914, vol. 173, series A–2, RG 13, LAC.
  136. 136. Deputy minister of justice to J.A. Therien, 21 March 1917, file 465–485, 1917, vol. 210, RG 13, LAC.
  137. 137. See Homestead Files, no. 72379, SW 14–6-30-W2, Saskatchewan Archives Board (SAB).
  138. 138. C.E.D. Wood to the undersecretary of state for Canada, 15 January 1921, Homestead Files, no. 72379, SW 14–6-30-W2, SAB.
  139. 139. Crankshaw and Chevalier, Crankshaw’s Criminal Code, 379.
  140. 140. Ibid.
  141. 141. H.M. Ingram to attorney general, Ottawa, 22 May 1916, file 1916–866, vol. 202, RG 13, LAC.
  142. 142. The Regina Leader, 1 November 1889.
  143. 143. B. Switzer to Attorney General Department, 20 May 1916, file 1916—876, vol. 202, RG 13, LAC.
  144. 144. R.E. Hawkins, “Lillian Beynon Thomas, Woman’s Suffrage, and the Return of Dower to Manitoba,” Manitoba Law Journal 27, no. 1 (1999): 67.

FOUR “A Striking Contrast...Where Perpetuity of Union and Exclusiveness is Not a Rule, at Least Not a Strict Rule”

  1. 1. Quoted in Constance Backhouse, Petticoats and Prejudice: Women and Law in Nineteenth-Century Canada (Toronto: The Osgoode Society, 1991), 24.
  2. 2. Following Sidney L. Harring’s example I will not use the term “customary” when speaking of Aboriginal marriage law. He writes that “to call Indian law ‘customary law’ sets up a false dichotomy between Indian and English or European law—which is itself rooted in custom.” Brad Morse has also commented on the failure of the Canadian judiciary to define family law, and specifically the marriage laws of Aboriginal Canada, as “law.” “At best, the courts have referred to ‘Indian marriages’ or ‘custom marriages’...This approach, which is reflected by the wording chosen, is to regard native marriages as being conducted pursuant to customs, traditions, or practices, rather than according to law. This then presents customary marriages as being somehow less important and less durable than Christian marriages that meet modern legal requirements developed in England.” See Sidney L. Harring, “Indian Law, Sovereignty and State Law,” in A Companion to American Indian History, ed. Philip J. Deloria and Neal Salisbury (Malden and Oxford: Blackwell Publishers Inc., 2002), 444. See also Bradford W. Morse, “Indian and Inuit Family Law and the Canadian Legal System,” American Indian Law Review 8 (1980): 219.
  3. 3. See Sarah Carter, “Change and Continuity: The World of the Plains,” chap. 5 in Aboriginal People and Colonizers of Western Canada to 1900 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1999), 83–100.
  4. 4. James [Sákéj] Henderson, “First Nations’ Legal Inheritances in Canada: The Mikmaq Model,” Manitoba Law Journal 23 (1996): 1.
  5. 5. Raymond J. DeMallie, “Kinship: The Foundation for Native American Society,” in Studying Native America: Problems and Prospects, ed. Russell Thornton (Madison: The University of Wisconsin Press, 1998), 323.
  6. 6. Ibid.
  7. 7. Ibid., 342.
  8. 8. The term Blackfoot refers to the Siksika (Blackfoot), Kainai (Blood) and Piikani (Peigan) people of southern Alberta.
  9. 9. George Bird Grinnell, Blackfoot Lodge Tales: The Story of a Prairie People (Lincoln and London: University of Nebraska Press, 1962), 125–31.
  10. 10. Many versions of this story have been recorded. See Clark Wissler and D. C. Duvall, Mythology of the Blackfoot Indians (Lincoln and London: University of Nebraska Press, 1995), 21–22. See also C.C. Uhlenbeck, A New Series of Blackfoot Texts From the Southern Peigan Blackfoot Reservation, Teton County, Montana (Amsterdam: Johannes Muller, 1912), 167.
  11. 11. Wissler and Duvall, Mythology of the Blackfoot Indians, 22.
  12. 12. R.N. Wilson fonds, edited and annotated by Philip Godsell, 2: 116, Glenbow Archives (GA).
  13. 13. Kenneth E. Kidd, “Blackfoot Ethnography: Being a Synthesis of the Data of Ethnological Science with the Information Concerning the Blackfoot Indians Contained in the Writing of Explorers, Travellers and Traders From the Time of First Contact to the Year 1821” (master’s thesis, University of Toronto, 1937), 46.
  14. 14. Cited in Ibid., 44.
  15. 15. John Ewers, The Blackfeet: Raiders on the Northwestern Plains (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1958), 99.
  16. 16. Adolf Hungry Wolf, Pikunni Biographies, The Blackfoot Papers, vol. 4 (Skookumchuck: The Good Medicine Cultural Foundation, 2006), 943.
  17. 17. Ibid.
  18. 18. Robert H. Lowie, “Marriage and Family Life Among the Plains Indians,” Scientific Monthly 34 (1932): 463.
  19. 19. Wilson fonds, 2: 117, GA.
  20. 20. Walter McClintock, The Old North Trail: Life, Legends and Religion of the Blackfeet Indians (1910; repr., Lincoln and London: University of Nebraska Press, 1992), 186.
  21. 21. Esther S. Goldfrank, Changing Configurations in the Social Organization of a Blackfoot Tribe During the Reserve Period, Monographs of the American Ethnological Society, ed. A. Irving Hallowell (Seattle and London: University of Washington Press, 1944), 16.
  22. 22. Ibid., 341.
  23. 23. Ibid., 17.
  24. 24. Lucien Hanks and Jane Hanks, Hanks field notes, p. 14, file 10, box 3, Hanks fonds, GA.
  25. 25. Ibid., 11.
  26. 26. Ibid.
  27. 27. Ibid., 10.
  28. 28. Ibid., 14–15.
  29. 29. Ibid. 15.
  30. 30. Kidd, Blackfoot Ethnography, 49.
  31. 31. Hanks and Hanks, Hanks field notes, p. 12, file 57, box 2, Hanks fonds, GA.
  32. 32. Wilson fonds, 2: 115, GA.
  33. 33. Kidd, Blackfoot Ethnography, 47.
  34. 34. Wissler and Duvall, Mythology of the Blackfoot Indians, 58–61.
  35. 35. Beverly Hungry Wolf, The Ways of My Grandmothers (New York: Quill, 1982), 27.
  36. 36. McClintock, The Old North Trail, 182–83.
  37. 37. James H. Bradley, Lieut. James H. Bradley Manuscript, vol. 9, Contributions to the Historical Society of Montana (Boston: J.S. Canner and Co., 1966), 271.
  38. 38. Wilson fonds, 2: 118, GA.
  39. 39. Kidd, Blackfoot Ethnography, 154.
  40. 40. Wilson fonds, 2: 118, GA.
  41. 41. Mary White Elk, 21 July (no year given), p. 230, box 61, Hanks fonds, GA.
  42. 42. Ewers, The Blackfeet, 100.
  43. 43. Kidd, Blackfoot Ethnography, 154–54.
  44. 44. Victor G. Hopwood, ed., David Thompson: Travels in Western North America, 1784–1812 (Toronto: Macmillan of Canada, 1971), 116.
  45. 45. Bradley, Lieut. James H. Bradley, 274.
  46. 46. Hopwood, David Thompson, 116.
  47. 47. Hanks and Hanks, Hanks field notes, p. 3, folder 10, Hanks fonds, GA.
  48. 48. Alice Kehoe, “The Plains: Blackfoot Persons,” in Women and Power in Native North America, ed. Laura F. Klein and L.A. Ackerman (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1995), 119–20.
  49. 49. Hanks and Hanks, Hanks field notes, p. 15–16, file 10, box 3, Hanks fonds, GA.
  50. 50. Hungry Wolf, Pikunni Biographies, 1336.
  51. 51. David G. Mandelbaum, The Plains Cree: An Ethnographic, Historical and Comparative Study (Regina: Canadian Plains Research Center, 1979), 148.
  52. 52. W.D. Wallis, “Annie Sioux,” folder 6, box 293, W.D. and R.S. Wallis papers, Canadian Museum of Civilization (CMC).
  53. 53. Mandelbaum, The Plains Cree, 148.
  54. 54. E-mail correspondence, H.C. Wolfart to author, 15 November 2003.
  55. 55. Wilson fonds, 1: 118, GA.
  56. 56. David G. Mandelbaum, “Fine Day # 1B,” 6 August 1964, 4–5, field notes, Canadian Plains Research Center (CPRC).
  57. 57. Ibid., 4.
  58. 58. Ibid., 5.
  59. 59. Wilson fonds, 2: 118, GA.
  60. 60. Hopwood, David Thompson, 116.
  61. 61. Quoted in Eugene Y. Arima, Blackfeet and Palefaces: The Piikani and Rocky Mountain House (Ottawa: The Golden Dog Press, 1995), 87.
  62. 62. Ibid.
  63. 63. Hungry Wolf, Pikunni Biographies, 1336.
  64. 64. Mary White Elk, 23 July (no year given), p. 234, box 61, Hanks fonds, GA.
  65. 65. Hungry Wolf, The Ways of My Grandmothers, 201.
  66. 66. Sue Sommers Dietrich, typescript of 1939 interviews on the Blackfoot Reservation, Montana, p. 4, Marquette University Archives. Thanks to Alice Kehoe for this reference.
  67. 67. W.D. Wallis, “Annie Sioux.”
  68. 68. John H. Moore, “The Developmental Cycle of Cheyenne Polygyny,” American Indian Quarterly (Summer, 1991): 311.
  69. 69. W.D. Wallis and R.S. Wallis, “Plural Marriage,” file 12, box 293, W.D. and R.S. Wallis collection, CMC.
  70. 70. Jeffery R. Hanson, introduction to Buffalo Bird Woman’s Garden: Agriculture of the Hidatsa Indians, by Gilbert L. Wilson (St. Paul: Minnesota Historical Society Press, 1987), 9.
  71. 71. Jean Goodwill and Norma Sluman, John Tootoosis (Ottawa: Golden Dog Press, 1982), 87.
  72. 72. Hanks and Hanks, Hanks fieldnotes, p. 14–18, folder 14, box 1, GA.
  73. 73. W.D. Wallis and R.S. Wallis, “Plural Marriage.”
  74. 74. Esther Goldfrank, Goldfrank fieldnotes, p. 172, GA.
  75. 75. Hungry Wolf, The Ways of My Grandmothers, 27.
  76. 76. John H. Moore, “The Developmental Cycle of Cheyenne Polygyny,” American Indian Quarterly 15, no.3 (Summer 1991): 311.
  77. 77. Microfilm reel #1M903, B.239/z/10, Hudson’s Bay Company Archives (HBCA), Provincial Archives of Manitoba, (PAM). I am very grateful to Judith H. Beattie, Keeper, HBCA, for this information provided to me by e-mail on 18 November 2002.
  78. 78. Hopwood, David Thompson, 116.
  79. 79. Alexander Hunter Murray, Journal of the Yukon, 1847–48, ed. L.J. Burpee (Ottawa: Government Printing Bureau, 1910), 86.
  80. 80. Jennifer S.H. Brown, Strangers in Blood: Fur Trade Company Families in Indian Country (Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 1980), 88.
  81. 81. Sabine Lang, Men as Women, Women as Men: Changing Gender in Native American Cultures (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1998).
  82. 82. Treaty pay lists for Sarcee and Stoney, 1887–1903, October 1891 (Sarcee Reserve), September 1891 (Stoney Reserve), September 1893 (Stoney Reserve), GA; see also Blood Agency Treaty pay list for September 1887. Thanks to researcher Kristin Burnett, PhD candidate, York University (Toronto), for providing this information.
  83. 83. “The Edward J. Brooks Letters: Part I,” Saskatchewan History 10, no. 3 (Autumn 1957): 109–10.
  84. 84. Edward Roper, By Track and Trail: A Journey Through Canada (London: Whalen and Co., 1891), 120.
  85. 85. Goldfrank, “Sorrel Horse,” 122, Goldfrank papers, GA.
  86. 86. Goldfrank, Goldfrank fieldnotes, p. 412.
  87. 87. Ibid. See also Hungry Wolf, “Running Eagle: Woman Warrior of the Blackfeet,” in The Ways of My Grandmothers, 62–68.
  88. 88. Quoted in Peter Boag, “Sexuality, Gender, and Identity in Great Plains History and Myth,” Great Plains Quarterly 18, no. 4 (Fall 1998): 328.
  89. 89. Hungry Wolf, Pikunni Biographies, 943.
  90. 90. Oscar Lewis, “Manly-Hearted Women Among the Northern Piegan,” American Anthropologist 43 (1941): 173–87.
  91. 91. Goldfrank, Changing Configurations, 48.
  92. 92. Goldfrank, Goldfrank fieldnotes, p. 345.
  93. 93. Hanks and Hanks, Hanks fieldnotes, p. 52, file 45, GA.
  94. 94. Ibid., p. 1, folder 27, box 1, GA.
  95. 95. John Tanner, A Narrative of the Captivity and Adventures of John Tanner During Thirty Years Residence Among the Indians in the Interior of North America, prepared for the press by Edwin James (1830; repr., Minneapolis: Ross and Haines, 1956), 89.
  96. 96. Ibid., 4
  97. 97. Eva McKay (Dakota Sioux, Dakota Tipi, Manitoba), In the Words of Elders: Aboriginal Cultures in Transition (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1999), 300.
  98. 98. This is Sean Hawkins’s argument for example in “‘The Woman in Question’: Marriage and Identity in the Colonial Courts of Northern Ghana, 1907–1954,” in Women in African Colonial Histories, ed. Jean Allman et al. (Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 2002), 116–43.
  99. 99. The Daily Free Press (Winnipeg), 1 June 1877.
  100. 100. Toronto Daily Mail, 23 January 1886.
  101. 101. Keith Goulet, “The Cumberland Cree Nehinuw Concept of Land” (unpublished paper presented at the conference Indigenous Knowledge Systems: International Symposium, University of Saskatchewan, 10–13 May 2004), 21. Thanks to Keith Goulet for sharing this paper with me and for discussions of Cree terms.
  102. 102. Cited in Ibid.
  103. 103. Mary Ann Schwartz and B.M. Scott eds., Marriage and Families: Diversity and Change, 3rd ed. (Toronto: Prentice-Hall Canada Ltd., 2000), xviii.
  104. 104. Henriette Forget, “The Indian Women of the Western Provinces,” in Women of Canada: Their Life and Work (Ottawa: National Council of Women of Canada, 1900), 435–36.
  105. 105. John Macoun, Manitoba and the Great North-West (Guelph: The World Publishing Co., 1882), 553.
  106. 106. The Leader (Regina), 27 May 1916.
  107. 107. J.B. Tyrrell, ed., David Thompson’s Narrative of the Explorations in North America, 1784–1812 (Toronto: The Champlain Society, 1916), 42.
  108. 108. Anna Brownell Jameson, Winter Studies and Summer Rambles in Canada (1837; repr., Toronto: Thomas Nelson and Sons, 1943), 181.
  109. 109. Amelia M. Paget, People of the Plains (1909; repr., Regina: Canadian Plains Research Centre, 2004), 40.
  110. 110. Moore, “The Developmental Cycle of Cheyenne Polygyny,” 311.
  111. 111. The Daily Free Press, 1 June 1877.
  112. 112. Non-Aboriginal views of Plains societies marriages are discussed in Sarah Carter, Capturing Women: The Manipulation of Cultural Imagery in Canada’s Prairie West (Montreal: McGill-Queen’s Press, 1997), 163–66. The attitudes of missionaries in British Columbia toward Aboriginal and other undesirable marriages are examined in Adele Perry, “Metropolitan Knowledge, Colonial Practice and Indigenous Womanhood: Missions in Nineteenth-Century British Columbia,” in Contact Zones: Aboriginal and Settler Women in Canada’s Colonial Past, ed. Katie Pickles and Myra Rutherdale (Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 2005), 115–22.
  113. 113. John Semmens, The Field and the Work: Sketches of Missionary Work in the Far North (Toronto: Methodist Mission Rooms, 1884), 163.
  114. 114. John Maclean, The Warden of the Plains: And Other Stories of Life in the Canadian North-West (Toronto: William Briggs: 1896), 185.
  115. 115. Ibid., 57.
  116. 116. Ibid., 59.
  117. 117. John McDougall, “The Red Men of Canada’s West Yesterday and Today,” in The 100,000 Manufacturing, Building and Wholesale Book Editions of the Morning Albertan, n.p. (Calgary: The Albertan, 1914), 146. Thanks to my colleague Donald B. Smith for bringing this to my attention and providing me with a copy of this article.
  118. 118. Rev. Ross C. Houghton, Women of the Orient: An Account of the Religious, Intellectual and Social Condition of Women (Cincinnati: Hitchcock and Walden, 1877), 190–91.
  119. 119. B.F. Austen, Woman: Her Character, Culture and Calling (Brantford: Book and Bible House, 1890), 158, 188.
  120. 120. Inderpal Grewal, Home and Harem: Nation, Gender, Empire and the Cultures of Travel (Durham and London: Duke University Press, 1996), 54.
  121. 121. Ewers, The Blackfeet, 37.
  122. 122. Ibid., 99.
  123. 123. Alan Klein, “The Political Economy of Gender: A 19th-Century Plains Indian Case Study,” in The Hidden Half: Studies of Plains Indian Woman, ed. P. Albers and B. Medicine (Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 1983), 143–73; David Nugent, “Property Relations, Production Relations, and Inequality: Anthropology, Political Economy and the Blackfeet,” American Anthropologist 20, no. 2 (May 1993): 336–62.
  124. 124. Nugent, “Property Relations,” 351.
  125. 125. Lewis, “Manly-Hearted Women,” 175.
  126. 126. Pekka Hämäläinen, “The Rise and Fall of Plains Indian Horse Cultures,” The Journal of American History (December 2003): 851.
  127. 127. Ibid., 851n36.
  128. 128. Montreal Herald and Daily Commercial Gazette, 10 July 1867.
  129. 129. Sidney L. Harring, White Man’s Law: Native People in Nineteenth-Century Jurisprudence (Toronto: Osgoode Society for Canadian Legal History and University of Toronto Press, 1998), 170.
  130. 130. Quoted in Kathryn M. Daynes, More Wives Than One: Transformation of the Mormon Marriage System, 1840–1910 (Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 2001), 83.
  131. 131. Quoted in Jennifer S.H. Brown, “Partial Truths: A Closer Look at Fur Trade Marriage,” in From Rupert’s Land to Canada: Essays in Honour of John E. Foster, ed. Theodore Binnema, Gerhard Ens, and R.C. McLeod (Edmonton: The University of Alberta Press, 2002), 74–75.
  132. 132. Ibid., 94.
  133. 133. Harring, White Man’s Law, 170.
  134. 134. Ibid., 171.
  135. 135. Extracts from the case of Connolly v. Woolrich and Johnson et.al. can be found at the University of Saskatchewan Library website: http://library.usask.ca/native/cnlc/vol01/070.html. Accessed November 7, 2007.
  136. 136. Montreal Herald and Daily Commercial Gazette, 10 July 1867.
  137. 137. Harring, White Man’s Law, 171.
  138. 138. Quoted in Brown, “Partial Truths,” 95.
  139. 139. Ibid., 74–75
  140. 140. See “Customary Marriages,” Indian and Northern Affairs Canada website: http://www.ainc-inac.gc.ca/pr/pu/matr/cm_e.html. Accessed November 7, 2007.
  141. 141. Douglas Sanders, “Indian Women: A Brief History of Their Roles and Rights,” McGill Law Journal 21, no. 4 (1975): 661.
  142. 142. Harring, White Man’s Law, 173.
  143. 143. Quoted in Constance Backhouse, Petticoats and Prejudice: Women and Law in Nineteenth-Century Canada (Toronto: The Osgoode Society, 1991), 24.
  144. 144. Ibid., 25.
  145. 145. Ibid.
  146. 146. Ibid., 24.
  147. 147. Regina v. Nan-E-Quis-A-Ka (1889), Territories Law Reports 1: 211 (NorthWest Territories Supreme Court). Available online at the University of Saskatchewan Library website: http://library.usask.ca/native/cnlc/vol103/636. html. Accessed 7 October 2003.
  148. 148. Norman Zlotkin, “Judicial Recognition of Aboriginal Customary Law in Canada: Selected Marriage and Adoption Cases,” Canadian Native Law Reporter 4 (1984): 3.
  149. 149. Alex Johnston “Nicholas and Marcella Sheran: Lethbridge’s First Citizens,” Alberta History 31, no. 4 (Autumn 1983): 1.
  150. 150. Sheran (1899), Territories Law Reports 4: 83 (North-West Territories Supreme Court).
  151. 151. Johnston, “Nicholas and Marcella Sheran,” 8.
  152. 152. Patricia Hackett Nicola, “Rebecca Lena Graham’s Fight For Her Inheritance,” Pacific Northwest Quarterly 97, no. 3 (Summer, 2006): 139–47.
  153. 153. Ibid., 142.
  154. 154. Ibid., 145.

FIVE The 1886 “Traffic in Indian Girls” Panic and the Foundation of the Federal Approach to Aboriginal Marriage and Divorce

  1. 1. W.M. Halladay to J.D. McLean, 1 February 1912, file 64.535 (pt. 1), vol. 3832, Department of Indian Affairs (RG 10), Library and Archives Canada (LAC).
  2. 2. 1887 Report of a Committee of the Privy Council, file 3245–1, vol. 3762, RG 10, (LAC).
  3. 3. Canada, House of Commons Debates (1886) vol. 1 at 720.
  4. 4. The Macleod Gazette, 23 June 1886.
  5. 5. Judith Walkowitz, City of Dreadful Delights: Narratives of Sexual Danger in Late-Victorian London (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1992), 81, 83.
  6. 6. Ibid., 83.
  7. 7. The Globe (Toronto), 1 February 1886.
  8. 8. David J. Carter, Samuel Trivett: Missionary with the Blood Indians (Calgary: Kyle Printing and Stationery, 1974), 90–91.
  9. 9. The Macleod Gazette, 23 March 1886.
  10. 10. Ann Laura Stoler, “Sexual Affronts and Racial Frontiers: European Identities and the Cultural Politics of Exclusion in Colonial Southeast Asia,” in Tensions of Empire: Colonial Cultures in a Bourgeois World, ed. Frederick Cooper and Ann Laura Stoler (Berkley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1997), 198–237.
  11. 11. Mariana Valverde, The Age of Light, Soap and Water: Moral Reform in English Canada, 1885–1925 (Toronto: McClelland and Stewart, 1991). See also Cicely Devereux, “‘And Let Them Wash Me From This Clanging World’: Hugh and Ion, the ‘Last Best West,’ and Purity Discourse in 1885,” Journal of Canadian Studies 32, no. 2 (Summer 1997): 100–15.
  12. 12. Renisa Mawani, “In Between and Out of Place: Racial Hybridity, Liquor, and the Law in Late 19th and Early 20th Century British Columbia,” Canadian Journal of Law and Society 15, no. 2 (2000): 11.
  13. 13. Quoted in Sarah Carter, “‘We Must Farm to Enable Us to Live’: The Plains Cree and Agriculture to 1900,” in Native Peoples: The Canadian Experience, 3rd ed., ed. R. Bruce Morrison and C. Roderick Wilson (Don Mills: Oxford University Press, 2004), 333.
  14. 14. Sarah Carter, Capturing Women: The Manipulation of Cultural Imagery in Canada’s Prairie West (Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 1997), 145–48.
  15. 15. L. Vankoughnet to J.A. Macdonald, 15 November 1883, file 628, vol. 1009, Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RG 18), LAC.
  16. 16. Carter, Capturing Women, 136–57.
  17. 17. Henry Finlay, “Victorian Sexual Morality: A Case of Double Standards,” Australian Journal of Law and Society 14 (1998–99): 55.
  18. 18. The Macleod Gazette, 16 March 1886.
  19. 19. The Globe (Toronto), 29 March 1886.
  20. 20. The Macleod Gazette, 16 March 1886.
  21. 21. Ibid., 1 February 1886.
  22. 22. Letter, Edgar Dewdney to Bishop of Saskatchewan, 31 May 1886, file 30613, vol. 3753, RG 10, LAC.
  23. 23. Anonymous, The Facts Respecting Indian Administration in the North-West (Ottawa: Department of Indian Affairs, 1886), 9.
  24. 24. L. Vankoughnet to Sir John A. Macdonald, 7 July 1886, file 32345, vol. 3762, RG 10, LAC.
  25. 25. Michael D. Blackstock, “Trust Us: A Case Study in Colonial Social Relations Based on Documents Prepared by the Aborigines Protection Society, 1836–1912,” in With Good Intentions: Euro-Canadian and Aboriginal Relations in Colonial Canada, ed. Celia Haig-Brown and David A. Nock (Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 2006), 58.
  26. 26. The Evangelical Churchman, 22 May 1884.
  27. 27. Letter, George Burbridge to L. Vankoughnet, 5 October 1886, file 32345, vol. 3762, RG 10, LAC.
  28. 28. Letter, D. C. Scott to Frank Oliver, 19 October 1910, file 32345, vol. 3762, RG 10, LAC. Scott writes in this letter “Under the Order in Council on file you will find the draft prepared under the late Sir John Thompson’s direction; in which you will see interlineations in his own hand writing. Part of Page 24 and all of page 25 are in his own handwriting.”
  29. 29. P.B. Waite, The Man From Halifax: Sir John Thompson Prime Minister (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1985), 128.
  30. 30. Ibid., 153.
  31. 31. Ibid., 183–84.
  32. 32. The Macleod Gazette, 6 September 1887; 13 September 1887.
  33. 33. Manitoba Free Press, 30 August 1887.
  34. 34. Ibid.
  35. 35. Series A -1-a, vol. 510, order-in-council 1887–0345 G, Privy Council Office (RG 2), LAC.
  36. 36. Certified copy of a report of a committee of the Honourable the Privy Council approved by His Excellency the Governor General in Council on the 31 October 1887, p. 1–2, file 32345, vol. 3762, RG 10, LAC.
  37. 37. Ibid.
  38. 38. Quoted in memorandum for the Deputy Minister of Justice, 15 May 1914, p. 3, file 1299–1914, vol. 2406, int. 163, Department of Justice (RG 13), LAC.
  39. 39. Ibid., 3–4.
  40. 40. Canada, Sessional Papers, 1899, no. 14, vol. 33, no. 12, p. xxv.
  41. 41. Memorandum to the deputy superintendent general, 29 February 1908, file 180.636, vol. 3990, RG 10, LAC.
  42. 42. Canada, Sessional Papers, 1907–8, no. 27, vol. 42, no. 14, p. xxix.
  43. 43. Brian Slattery, ed., Canadian Native Law Cases, vol. 2, 1870–90 (Saskatoon: University of Saskatchewan Native Law Centre, 1981), 372.
  44. 44. E. Pauline Johnson, “A Red Girl’s Reasoning,” in E. Pauline Johnson (Tekahionwake): Collected Poems and Selected Prose, intro. and ed. Carole Gerson and Veronica Strong-Boag (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2002), 188–202.
  45. 45. Ibid., 195–96.
  46. 46. Ibid., 197.
  47. 47. Ibid., 196.
  48. 48. The Macleod Gazette, 25 January 1895; M. B. Venini Byrne, From the Buffalo to the Cross: A History of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Calgary (Calgary: Calgary Archives Historical Publishers, 1973), 50.
  49. 49. Anglican Diocese of Calgary, Diocese of Calgary: Report on Indian Missions, 1895–6 (Toronto: Oxford Press, 1896), 7. Copy available in box 67.21.1, Records of the Anglican Diocese of Calgary, Synod Office Records (General Files), University of Calgary Archives (UCA).
  50. 50. The Sower in the West and Church Monthly 11, no. 4 (April 1894): 5. Copy available in box 27, file 27.1, Records of the Anglican Diocese of Calgary, Diocesan Synod Publications, UCA.
  51. 51. Chief Piapot to J.A. Macdonald, 30 April 1885, file 19.550–2, vol. 3709, RG 10, LAC.
  52. 52. R.C. Macleod and Heather Rollason, “‘Restrain the Lawless Savages’: Native Defendants in the Criminal Courts of the North West Territories, 1878–1885,” Journal of Historical Sociology 10, no. 2 (June 1997): 158.
  53. 53. Ibid.
  54. 54. Canada. Sessional Papers. 1885, no. 3, vol. 3, p. lxi.
  55. 55. Canada. House of Commons Debates (27 May 1885) at 2162.
  56. 56. Felix S. Cohen, Handbook of Federal Indian Law (Washington: United States Government Printing Office, 1945), 120.
  57. 57. Sharon Helen Venne, ed., Indian Acts and Amendments 1868–1975: An Indexed Collection (Saskatoon: University of Saskatchewan Native Law Centre, 1981), 24.
  58. 58. Ibid., 57.
  59. 59. Ibid., 25.
  60. 60. A.E. Forget to Nancy LaVallie, 18 April 1895, file 1239, pt. 7, vol. 3594, RG 10, LAC.
  61. 61. Deputy minister of justice to deputy minister of the interior, 19 May 1886, vol. 2247, box INT 93, 71/1885, Department of Justice (RG 13), LAC.
  62. 62. Ibid.
  63. 63. L. Vankoughnet to A.M. Burgess, 20 January 1886, vol. 187, D-II-3, Department of the Interior (RG 15), LAC.
  64. 64. Letter, G. Burbridge to L. Vankoughnet, 7 April 1886, file 23,593, vol. 3721, RG 10, LAC.
  65. 65. Memo from G. Burbridge, deputy minister of justice, 22 February 1886, file 23,593, vol. 3721, RG 10, LAC.
  66. 66. Venne, Indian Acts and Amendments, 94.
  67. 67. Ibid.
  68. 68. Ibid., 183.
  69. 69. Ibid., 139.
  70. 70. Ibid.
  71. 71. J. McLean to R.D. Howell, 13 July 1911, file 64,535, vol. 3832, RG 10, LAC.
  72. 72. J. McLean to the principal, Alberni School, 1900, file 180,636, vol. 3990, RG 10, LAC.
  73. 73. Secretary of the department of Indian Affairs to M.R. Bogart, 2 December 1909, pt. 1, file 32345, vol. 3762, RG 10, LAC.
  74. 74. John E. Crankshaw and Alexandre Chevalier, Crankshaw’s Criminal Code of Canada, 5th ed. (Toronto: The Carswell Co., 1924), 374.
  75. 75. Freda Ahenakew and H.C. Wolfart, eds. and trans., Kôhkominawak Otâcimowiniwâwa: Our Grandmothers’ Lives as Told in Their Own Words (Saskatoon: Fifth House, 1992), 79.
  76. 76. Canada, Sessional Papers, 1894, no. 14, vol. 27, no. 10, p. 45.
  77. 77. “An Ordinance Respecting Marriages,” North-West Territories Ordinance, no. 9, 1878. Canadian Inventors of Historic Microreproduction, no. 52120.
  78. 78. Charles R. Weaver to attorney general, 30 August 1911, file 94,189, vol. 3881, RG 10, LAC.
  79. 79. Venne, Indian Acts and Amendments, 90.
  80. 80. Petition from members of The Pas Band, 1889, file 56,941, vol. 3816, RG 10, LAC.
  81. 81. Hayter Reed to deputy superintendent general of Indian Affairs, 25 September 1893, file 94,189, vol. 3881, RG 10, LAC.
  82. 82. Unsigned letter to undisclosed recipient, 1 February 1912, file 64,535, vol. 3832, RG 10, LAC.
  83. 83. David Laird to Indian agent, Selkirk, Manitoba, 15 March 1905, file 74, pt. 28, vol. 3559, RG 10, LAC.
  84. 84. Memorandum for the deputy minister of justice, 15 May 1888, file 1299–1914, p. 4, vol. 2406, int. 163, RG 13, LAC.
  85. 85. Deputy minister of justice to Hayter Reed, 22 May 1895, file 494 (1895), vol. 97, Series A-2, RG 13, LAC.
  86. 86. Jean Barman, “Taming Aboriginal Sexuality: Gender, Power, and Race in British Columbia, 1850–1900,” B.C. Studies 115/116 (Autumn/Winter 1997/98): 248.
  87. 87. Diane Jeater, Marriage, Perversion and Power: The Construction of Moral Discourse in Southern Rhodesia, 1894–1930 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993), 55.
  88. 88. Rosalind O’Hanlon, “Gender in the British Empire,” in The Oxford History of the British Empire, vol. IV, The Twentieth Century, ed. Judith M. Brown and Wm. R. Louis (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), 383.
  89. 89. Quoted in Deborah Posel, “State, Power and Gender: Conflict over the Registration of African Customary Marriage in South Africa, ca. 1910–1970,” Journal of Historical Sociology 8, no. 3 (September 1995): 227.
  90. 90. O’Hanlon, “Gender in the British Empire,” 383.
  91. 91. Barbara M. Cooper, Marriage in Maradi: Gender and Culture in a Hausa Society in Niger, 1900–1989 (Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann, 1997), xlv.
  92. 92. Elizabeth Isichei, “Does Christianity Empower Women? The Case of the Anaguta of Central Nigeria,” in Women and Missions: Past and Present, ed. Fiona Bowie et al. (Oxford: Berg Publishers, 1993), 209–26.
  93. 93. Benjamin Kline, Genesis of Apartheid: British African Policy in the Colony of Natal, 1845–1893 (Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 1988), 12.
  94. 94. Ibid., 14.
  95. 95. Jeater, Marriage, Perversion and Power, 64.
  96. 96. Posel, “State, Power and Gender,” 227.
  97. 97. See Norman Etherington, “Natal’s Black Rape Scares of the 1870s,” Journal of Southern African Studies 15, no. 1 (1988): 36–53; see also Jeremy Martens, “Polygamy, Sexual Danger, and the Creation of Vagrancy Legislation in Colonial Natal,” The Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 31, no. 3 (September 2003): 24–25.
  98. 98. Kline, Genesis of Apartheid, 17.
  99. 99. Martens, “Polygamy,” 37.
  100. 100. Martin Chanock, Law, Custom and Social Order: The Colonial Experience in Malawi and Zambia (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985), 150.
  101. 101. Jean Comaroff and John Comaroff, Of Revelation and Revolution: Christianity, Colonialism and Consciousness in South Africa (Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 1991), 1:132.
  102. 102. O’Hanlon, “Gender in the British Empire,” 383.
  103. 103. Ibid., 385.
  104. 104. Ibid.
  105. 105. Chanock, Law, Custom and Social Order, 207.
  106. 106. Jean Allman and Victoria Tashjian, “I Will Not Eat Stone”: A Women’s History of Colonial Asante (Westport: Greenwood Publishing Group, 2000).
  107. 107. Posel, “State, Power and Gender,” 240.
  108. 108. Ibid., 241.
  109. 109. Jeater, Marriage, Perversion and Power, 56.
  110. 110. Ibid., 65.
  111. 111. Ibid., 64.
  112. 112. Ibid., 84.
  113. 113. Ibid., 138–40.
  114. 114. Barman, “Taming Aboriginal Sexuality,” 251.
  115. 115. Ibid., 253.
  116. 116. Quoted in Ibid., 254.
  117. 117. J.W. Mackay to A.W. Vowell, 4 July 1890, file 57,045–1, vol. 3816, RG 10, LAC.
  118. 118. Barman, “Taming Aboriginal Sexuality,” 254.
  119. 119. R.H. Pidcock to A.W. Vowell, 4 March 1891, file 57,045–1, vol. 3816, RG 10, LAC.
  120. 120. J.W. Mackay, to A.W. Vowell, 4 July 1890, file 57,045–1, vol. 3816, RG 10, LAC.
  121. 121. Superintendent General of Indian Affairs to the Honourable The Privy Council of Canada, 13 March 1891, file 57,045–1, vol. 3816, RG 10, LAC.
  122. 122. Barman, “Taming Aboriginal Sexuality,” 258.
  123. 123. Felix S. Cohen, Handbook of Federal Indian Law (Washington: United States Government Printing Office: 1945), 120.
  124. 124. Ibid., 138.
  125. 125. Ibid.
  126. 126. Quoted in David E. Wilkins, American Indian Sovereignty and the United States Supreme Court (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1997), 128–29.
  127. 127. Ibid., 139.
  128. 128. Katherine M. B. Osburn, Southern Ute Women: Autonomy and Assimilation on the Reservation, 1887–1934 (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1998), 120.
  129. 129. O’Hanlon, “Gender in the British Empire,” 392.
  130. 130. Victoria Freeman, “Attitudes Toward ‘Miscegenation’ in Canada, the United States, New Zealand, and Australia, 1860–1914,” Native Studies Review 16, no. 1 (2005): 52.
  131. 131. Peggy Pascoe, “The Architecture of White Supremacy in the Multiracial West: The Case of Miscegenation Law” (paper presented at “Dancing on the Rim: Nations, Borderlands and Identities,” 2005 Pacific Coast Branch of the American Historical Association, Corvallis, Oregon, 6 August 2005).
  132. 132. Ibid.
  133. 133. J.D. McLean to Rev. T. Albert Moore, 18 April 1912, file 57,045–1, vol. 3816, RG 10, LAC.
  134. 134. Mandy Paul and Robert Foster, “Married to the Land: Land Grants to Aboriginal Women in South Australia, 1848–1911,” Australian Historical Studies 34, no. 121 (April 2003): 48–68.
  135. 135. Ann McGrath, “Consent, Marriage and Colonialism: Indigenous Australian Women and Colonizer Marriages,” Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History 6, no. 3 (2005): 11.
  136. 136. Ibid., p. 12.
  137. 137. The judgement in this case is found in re: Bethell, Bethell v. Hildyard (1885), p. 220–37, B. 2119, Law Report 38, Chancery Division, file 64, 535, vol. 3832, RG 10, LAC.
  138. 138. Ibid., 4.
  139. 139. Ibid., 8.
  140. 140. Ibid., 12.
  141. 141. Ibid., 21.
  142. 142. Ibid., 20.
  143. 143. Ibid., 23.
  144. 144. Ibid., 25.
  145. 145. Ibid., 16.
  146. 146. Ibid., 16–17.
  147. 147. Ibid., 19.
  148. 148. Ibid., 16.

SIX Creating “Semi-Widows” and “Supernumerary Wives”

  1. 1. For an overview of recent “intimacies of empire” studies in postcolonial and US history see Ann Laura Stoler, “Tense and Tender Ties: The Politics of North American History and (Post) Colonial Studies,” The Journal of American History 88, no. 3 (December 2001): 829–65. I am grateful to Joan Sangster and Bryan Palmer for providing me with a copy of their commentary on this article, which notes that Canadian history does not fall within the rubric of “North American” history in this article.
  2. 2. J.M.S., “Missionary Problems in India,” The Missionary Review of the World, no.1 (January–December 1888): 18
  3. 3. Eugene Stock, The History of the Church Missionary Society: Its Environment, its Men and its Work, vol. 2 (London: Church Missionary Society, 1899), 111.
  4. 4. Ibid., vol. 3:646.
  5. 5. Jeff Guy, The Heretic: A Study of the Life of John William Colenso, 1814–1883 (Pietermartizburg: The University of Natal Press, 1983), 49.
  6. 6. Ibid., 78.
  7. 7. J.W. Colenso, Remarks on the Proper Treatment of Polygamy as Found Already Existing in Converts From Heathenism (Pietermaritzburg: May and Davis, 1855), 15.
  8. 8. Ibid., 17.
  9. 9. Ibid., 7.
  10. 10. Ibid., 20.
  11. 11. Ibid., 17.
  12. 12. Anonymous, “Reply to J.W. Colenso,” in Colenso, Remarks on the Proper Treatment of Polygamy, 40.
  13. 13. Ibid., 42.
  14. 14. Ibid., 46.
  15. 15. Samuel Trivett, 22 March 1887, no. 979, reel A114 (microfilm), Church Missionary Society Collection, Provincial Archives of Manitoba (PAM).
  16. 16. John Maclean, Canadian Savage Folk: The Native Tribes of Canada (Toronto: William Briggs, 1896), 62.
  17. 17. John Webster Grant, Moon of Wintertime: Missionaries and the Indians of Canada (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1984), 235. See also Peter Jones, History of the Ojibwa Indians (London: Q.W. Bennett, 1861), 82.
  18. 18. John Semmens, The Field and the Work: Sketches of Missionary Work in the Far North (Toronto: Methodist Mission Rooms, 1884), 166.
  19. 19. John Hines, The Red Indians of the Plains: Thirty Years’ Missionary Experience in the Saskatchewan (Toronto: McClelland, Goodchild and Stewart, 1916), 158–59.
  20. 20. H.W. Gibbon Stocken, Among the Blackfoot and Sarcee (Calgary: Glenbow Alberta Institute: 1976), 50.
  21. 21. Rudolph Friedrich Kurz, quoted in David Reed Miller, introduction to The Assiniboine, by Edwin Thompson Denig, ed. J.N.B. Hewitt (Regina: Canadian Plains Research Center, 1998), xix n10.
  22. 22. Ibid., 74.
  23. 23. James Carnegie, Earl of Southesk, Saskatchewan and Rocky Mountains: A Diary and Narrative of Travel, Sport, and Adventure During a Journey Through the Hudson’s Bay Company’s Territories in 1859 and 1860 (Toronto: J. Campbell, 1875), 155.
  24. 24. Canada. Sessional Papers, vol. 3, no. 3 (1885): lxi.
  25. 25. Canada. House of Commons Debates. 26 May 1885 at 2127.
  26. 26. Circular letter of J.F. Graham, 24 July 1882, file 1760, vol. 3602, Department of Indian Affairs (RG 10), Library and Archives Canada (LAC).
  27. 27. Canada. Sessional Papers, no. 6, vol. 5, 1882: 113.
  28. 28. The Globe and Mail, 8 August 1881.
  29. 29. Letter Leaflet, July 1894, 809.
  30. 30. Extract, letter from J.W. Tims, 2 August 1894, file 486–2-5, pt. 1, vol. 6816, RG 10, LAC.
  31. 31. D.L. Clink to the Indian Commissioner, 10 December 1894, file 486–2-5, pt. 1, vol. 6816, RG 10, LAC.
  32. 32. A.M. Burgess to Edgar Dewdney, 23 January 1890, file 223719, vol. 614, D-II-1, Department of the Interior (RG 15), LAC.
  33. 33. H.H. Smith to A.M. Burgess, 17 December 1889, file 223719, vol. 614, D-II-1, RG 15, LAC.
  34. 34. Ibid.
  35. 35. Ibid.
  36. 36. Précis of the claim written by Roger Goulet, 28 November 1889, file 223719, vol. 614, D-II-1, RG 15, LAC.
  37. 37. Ibid.
  38. 38. Ibid.
  39. 39. Diana Jeater, Marriage, Perversion and Power: The Construction of Moral Discourse in Southern Rhodesia, 1894–1930 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993), 78.
  40. 40. John David Pulsipher, “The Americanization of Monogamy: Mormons, Native Americans and the Nineteenth-Century Perception that Polygamy was a Threat to Democracy” (PhD diss., University of Minnesota, 1999), 162.
  41. 41. Quoted in Jeater, Marriage, Perversion and Power, 74.
  42. 42. Edmonton Bulletin, 23 August 1890.
  43. 43. Missions el la Congrégation des missionaries Oblats de Marie Immaculée (Paris: Typographie A. Hennuyer, 1897), 402.
  44. 44. Brian Q. Cannon, “Mormonism in Montana,” Montana: The Magazine of Western History 6, no. 1 (Spring 2006): 8.
  45. 45. Ibid., 9.
  46. 46. Ibid., 10–11.
  47. 47. Quoted in Pulsipher, “The Americanization of Monogamy,” 137.
  48. 48. Quoted in Ibid., 136.
  49. 49. Vic Satzewich and Linda Mahood, “Indian Affairs and Band Governance: Deposing Indian Chiefs in Western Canada, 1896–1911,” Canadian Ethnic Studies 26, no 1 (1994): 40–58.
  50. 50. Ibid., 45.
  51. 51. Sarah Carter, Lost Harvests: Prairie Indian Reserve Farmers and Government Policy (Montreal and Kingston: McGill-Queen’s Press, 1990), 193–236.
  52. 52. Hayter Reed to Deputy Superintendent General of Indian Affairs (DSGIA), 8 September 1892, file 94–189, vol. 3881, RG 10, LAC.
  53. 53. Letter, Hayter Reed to DSGIA, 25 September 1893, file 94–189, vol. 3881, RG 10, LAC.
  54. 54. Canada. Sessional Papers, no. 15, vol. 10, 1892: 111.
  55. 55. Circular letter, Assistant Commissioner Amedée Forget to Indian Agents, 19 December 1893, file 94–189, vol. 3881, RG 10, LAC.
  56. 56. “Statement showing ages of Indians who have entered into polygamous relations since taking treaty,” p. 5, letter, Amedée Forget to DSGIA, 30 January 1895, file 94–189, vol. 3881, RG 10, LAC.
  57. 57. Allen McDonald to Assistant Commissioner Forget (copy, n.d.), file 94–189, vol. 3881, RG 10, LAC.
  58. 58. R.S. McKenzie to Assistant Commissioner Forget (copy, n.d.), file 94–189, vol. 3881, RG 10, LAC.
  59. 59. M. McGirr to A. Forget, 26 September 1894, file 94–189, vol. 3881, RG 10, LAC.
  60. 60. Ibid.
  61. 61. Ibid. These figures are from the copies of the 1893 agents’ reports prepared by A. Forget. The statements for the Piikani are incomplete and unclear.
  62. 62. Ibid. These figures are from the “Statement showing ages of Indians who have entered into polygamous relations since taking treaty.” See note 56.
  63. 63. E.J. Newcombe to Hayter Reed, 4 January 1895, file 94–189, vol. 3881, RG 10, LAC.
  64. 64. J. Wilson to A. Forget, 21 January 1895, file 94–189, vol. 3881, RG 10, LAC.
  65. 65. Ibid.
  66. 66. Ibid.
  67. 67. J. Wilson to A. Forget, 20 February 1895, file 94–189, vol. 3881, RG 10, LAC.
  68. 68. Forget memo (n.d.), file 94–189, vol. 3881, RG 10, LAC.
  69. 69. “Regina v. Labrie,” The Montreal Law Reports: Court of Queen’s Bench, vol. 7 (Montreal: Gazette Printing Co., 1891), 211.
  70. 70. Ibid., 213.
  71. 71. Ibid.
  72. 72. H. Reed to A. Forget, 4 March 1895, file 94–189, vol. 3881, RG 10, LAC.
  73. 73. D. M. Browning to H. Reed, 13 June 1896, file 94–189, vol. 3881, RG 10, LAC.
  74. 74. Pulsipher, “The Americanization of Monogamy,” 169–70.
  75. 75. Ibid., 170.
  76. 76. Robert M. Utley, The Indian Frontier of the American West, 1846–1890 (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1984), 234–36.
  77. 77. The Rapid City Daily Journal, 4 May 1895.
  78. 78. Ibid., 16 May 1895.
  79. 79. Ibid.
  80. 80. Ibid., 26 May 1895.
  81. 81. Felix S. Cohen, Handbook of Federal Indian Law (Washington: United States Government Printing Office, 1945), 138.
  82. 82. Brian Slattery, ed., Canadian Native Law Cases, vol. 2, 1870–1890 (Saskatoon: University of Saskatchewan Native Law Centre, 1981), 368–72.
  83. 83. Ibid., 372.
  84. 84. Magnus Begg to A. Forget, 23 March 1895, file 934,189, vol. 3881, RG 10, LAC.
  85. 85. A. Forget to M. Begg, 7 February 1895, file 934,189, vol. 3881, RG 10, LAC.
  86. 86. St. Cyprian’s Mission Parish Records, 15–4, Records of the Anglican Diocese of Calgary, University of Calgary Archives (UCA).
  87. 87. M. Begg to A. Forget, 23 February 1895, file 934,189, vol. 3881, RG 10, LAC.
  88. 88. Ibid.
  89. 89. The federal government of Canada has not yet established a minimum age for marriage, which has resulted in the adoption of the minimum ages under English common law: fourteen years for males, twelve years for females. Provinces and territories have legislation requiring a higher minimum age. See Dwight L. Gibson et al., All About the Law: Exploring the Canadian Legal System, 4th ed. (Toronto: Nelson Canada, 1996), 355.
  90. 90. M. Begg to A. Forget, 9 March 1895, file 934,189, vol. 3881, RG 10, LAC.
  91. 91. A. Forget to M. Begg, 11 March 1895, file 934,189, vol. 3881, RG 10, LAC.
  92. 92. M. Begg to A. Forget, 16 March 1895, file 934,189, vol. 3881, RG 10, LAC.
  93. 93. Hugh Dempsey, Charcoal’s World (Saskatoon: Western Producer Prairie Books: 1978), 36.
  94. 94. J.R. Miller, Shingwauk’s Vision: A History of Native Residential Schools (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1996), 130.
  95. 95. J.W. Tims to Indian Commissioner, 27 June 1895, file RCMP 1895 Commissioners Office Pt. 1, fol. 2182, RG 18, LAC.
  96. 96. Ibid.
  97. 97. The Sower in the West and Church Monthly 3, no. 6 (June 1895).
  98. 98. Dempsey, Charcoal’s World, 12.
  99. 99. The Weekly Herald (Calgary), 21 January 1897.
  100. 100. The Macleod Gazette, 15 January 1897.
  101. 101. Ibid.
  102. 102. Hugh Dempsey, Red Crow, Warrior Chief (Saskatoon: Fifth House, 1995), 197.
  103. 103. Quoted in Ibid.
  104. 104. Ibid., 217.
  105. 105. A. Forget to J. Smart, 15 April 1898, file 94,189, vol. 3881, RG 10, LAC.
  106. 106. J.D. McLean to A. Forget, 22 April 1898, file 74, pt. 3, vol. 3559, RG 10, LAC.
  107. 107. A. Forget to J.D. McLean, 8 August 1898, file 94,189, vol. 3881, RG 10, LAC.
  108. 108. J. Wilson to J.D. McLean, 23 July 1898, file 94,189, vol. 3881, RG 10, LAC.
  109. 109. A. Forget to the DIA Secretary, 13 September 1890, file 74, pt. 6, vol. 3559, RG 10, LAC.
  110. 110. Ibid.
  111. 111. A. Forget to Indian agent, File Hills Agency, 20 January 1899, file 74, pt. 6, vol. 3559, RG 10, LAC.
  112. 112. A. Forget to J. Wilson, 18 August 1898, file 74, pt. 3, vol. 3559, RG 10, LAC.
  113. 113. Ibid.
  114. 114. J. Wilson to A. Forget, 4 November 1898, file 74, pt. 19, vol. 3559, RG 10, LAC.
  115. 115. Ibid.
  116. 116. A. Forget to J. Wilson, 10 December 1898, file 74, pt. 19, vol. 3559, RG 10, LAC.
  117. 117. J. Wilson to A. Forget, 6 December 1898, file 74, pt. 19, vol. 3559, RG 10, LAC.
  118. 118. Slattery, Canadian Native Law Cases, 513.
  119. 119. J. Wilson to A. Forget, 13 March 1899, file 74, pt. 19, vol. 3559, RG 10, LAC.
  120. 120. The Macleod Gazette, 11 March 1899.
  121. 121. J. Wilson to A. Forget, 13 March 1899, file 74, pt. 19, vol. 3559, RG 10, LAC.
  122. 122. Ibid.
  123. 123. Secretary S. Stewart to Indian Commissioner David Laird, 1 April 1899, file 74, pt. 19, vol. 3559, RG 10, LAC.
  124. 124. Memorandum, Duncan Campbell Scott, 29 March 1899, file 74, pt. 19, vol. 3559, RG 10, LAC.
  125. 125. 1901 Census Data, Canada Census Records, Glenbow Archives (GA).
  126. 126. See file 74, part 3–30, vol. 3559, RG 10, LAC.
  127. 127. Canada. Sessional Papers, no. 27 (1904): 148.
  128. 128. See “Marriages on the Blackfoot Reservation,” box 75, file 1, Records of the Anglican Diocese of Calgary, UCA.
  129. 129. Mrinalini Sinha, “Gender and Imperialism: Colonial Policy and the Ideology of Moral Imperialism in Late Nineteenth-Century Bengal,” in Changing Men: New Directions in Research on Men and Masculinity, ed. Michael S. Kimmel (Newbury Park: Sage Publications, 1987), 218. See also Himani Bannerji, “Age of Consent and Hegemonic Social Reform,” in Gender and Imperialism, ed. Claire Midgley (Manchester and New York: Manchester University Press, 1998), 21–44.
  130. 130. J.A. Markle to Indian Commissioner, 11 December 1900, file 486–2-5, pt. 1, vol. 6816, RG 10, LAC.
  131. 131. D. Laird to J.D. McLean, 15 December 1900, file 486–2-5, pt. 1, vol. 6816, RG 10, LAC.
  132. 132. Reginald Rimmer, “Memorandum, Child Marriage,” 28 December 1900, file 486–2-5, pt. 1, vol. 6816, RG 10, LAC.
  133. 133. Ibid. Underlined in the original document.
  134. 134. J.A. McKenna to the DIA Secretary, 6 June 1903, file 486–2-5, pt. 1, vol. 6816, RG 10, LAC.
  135. 135. James Short to E.L. Newcombe, 10 August 1903, file 486–2-5, pt. 1, vol. 6816, RG 10, LAC.
  136. 136. Reginald Rimmer, “Memorandum, Criminal Liability of Parties to Child Marriage,” 26 June 1903, file 486–2-5, pt. 1, vol. 6816, RG 10, LAC.
  137. 137. A.W. Vowell to the DIA Secretary, 1898, file 486–2-5, pt. 1, vol. 6816, RG 10, LAC.
  138. 138. James Short to E.L. Newcombe, file 486-2-5 pt. 1, vol. 6816, RG 10, LAC, date obscured.
  139. 139. R. Rimmer to the DIA Deputy Superintendent General, 21 August 1903, file 486–2-5, pt. 1, vol. 6816, RG 10, LAC.

SEVEN “Undigested, Conflicting and Inharmonious”

  1. 1. Frederick H. Abbott, The Administration of Indian Affairs in Canada (Washington D.C.: 1915), 43.
  2. 2. Ibid., 20.
  3. 3. Ibid., 21.
  4. 4. Ibid., 20.
  5. 5. Duncan Campbell Scott’s circular letter to Indian agents, 2 January 1914, file 32345, vol. 3762, Department of Indian Affairs (RG 10), Library and Archives Canada (LAC).
  6. 6. Rosalind O’Hanlon, “Gender in the British Empire,” in The Oxford History of the British Empire, vol. IV, The Twentieth Century, ed. Judith M. Brown and Wm. Roger Louis (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), 383.
  7. 7. J.D. McLean to the Bishop of St. Albert, 6 August 1908, file 94,189, vol. 3881, RG 10, LAC.
  8. 8. J.R. Miller, Shingwauk’s Vision: A History of Native Residential Schools (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1996), 22.
  9. 9. Extract, letter by W.E. Jones, 6 February 1895, file 486–2-5, vol. 6816, RG 10, LAC.
  10. 10. W.P. Osickyas to Hayter Reed, 26 June 1894, file 486–2-5, pt. 1, vol. 6816, RG 10, LAC.
  11. 11. H. Reed to A. Nassens, 14 July 1894, file 486–2-5, pt. 1, vol. 6816, RG 10, LAC.
  12. 12. H. Reed to W.P. Osickyas, 16 July 1894, file 486–2-5, pt. 1, vol. 6816, RG 10, LAC.
  13. 13. Magnus Begg to A. Forget, 4 August 1894, file 486–2-5, pt. 1, vol. 6816, RG 10, LAC.
  14. 14. Sharon Helen Venne, ed., Indian Acts and Amendments 1868–1975: An Indexed Collection (Saskatoon: University of Saskatchewan Native Law Centre, 1981), 164.
  15. 15. H. Reed to J. Hugonnard, 13 June 1890, file 486–2-5, pt. 1, vol. 6816, RG 10, LAC.
  16. 16. J. Hugonnard to H. Reed, 31 May 1890, file 486–2-5, pt. 1, vol. 6816, RG 10, LAC.
  17. 17. J.P. Wright to Indian Commissioner, 10 August 1898, file 74, pt. 6, vol. 3559, RG 10, LAC.
  18. 18. Muscowpetung Reserve (Saskatchewan) Indian agent to Indian Commissioner, 9 July 1900, file 74, pt. 7, vol. 3559, RG 10, LAC.
  19. 19. Indian Commissioner to Muscowpetung Reserve Indian agent, 12 July 1900, file 74, pt. 7, vol. 3559, RG 10, LAC.
  20. 20. Abbott, The Administration of Indian Affairs in Canada, 43.
  21. 21. Report, dated 14 March 1914 and 31 March 1914, file 97, BC. 31/B655, Blood Agency Correspondence, Glenbow Archives (GA).
  22. 22. Circular letter from Duncan Campbell Scott, 12 March 1914, vol. 1392, RG 10, LAC.
  23. 23. “Canadian Citizens in the Making,” Nor’-West Farmer 31, no. 13 (5 July 1912): 941.
  24. 24. H.V. Graham, “Two Weddings,” file 9, W.M. Graham Papers, GA.
  25. 25. David Roberts, “Indian Students Forced into Marriage, Farm Life,” The Globe and Mail, 10 December 1990.
  26. 26. Sarah Carter, “Demonstrating Success: The File Hills Farm Colony,” Prairie Forum 16, no. 2 (1991): 157–83.
  27. 27. Abbott, The Administration of Indian Affairs in Canada, 54.
  28. 28. Canada, Sessional Papers, 1912, no. 27, vol. 46, no. 20, p. 520.
  29. 29. Eleanor Brass, “Recollections and Reminiscences: The File Hills Ex-Pupil Colony,” Saskatchewan History 6, no. 2 (1953): 67.
  30. 30. R.J. MacPherson to DIA Secretary, 1922, file 486–2-6 pt. 1, vol. 6816, RG 10, LAC.
  31. 31. S. Middleton to Rev. Dr. Westgate, 8 February 1923, file 486–2-6, vol. 6816, RG 10, LAC.
  32. 32. Memorandum (author unclear), 27 February 1923, file 486–2-6, vol. 6816, RG 10, LAC.
  33. 33. Indian agent Moose Mountain to Fr. Pedley, 20 February 1905, file 74 pt. 3, vol. 3559, RG 10, LAC.
  34. 34. R.V. Sinclair, Canadian Indians (Ottawa: Thorburn and Abbott, n.d., ca. 1911), 30.
  35. 35. R.N. Wilson to the DIA Secretary, 1904, Blood Agency letterbook, 1903–5, GA.
  36. 36. R.N. Wilson to the DIA Secretary, 22 December 1904, Blood Agency letter-book, 1903–5, p. 410, GA.
  37. 37. Deputy Minister of Justice to the Deputy Superintendent General of Indian Affairs, 7 November 1904, file 284/1905, vol. 2324, RG 13, LAC.
  38. 38. R.N. Wilson to DIA Secretary, 1904 (exact date obscured), Blood Agency letter-book, 1903–5, p. 465–66, GA.
  39. 39. R.N. Wilson to DIA Secretary, 22 December 1904, Blood Agency letterbook, 1903–5, p. 411, GA.
  40. 40. Ibid.
  41. 41. E.L. Newcombe to Deputy Superintendent General of Indian Affairs, 27 March 1905, file 284/1905, vol. 2324, Department of Justice (RG 13), LAC.
  42. 42. R.N. Wilson to Messrs. Weed and Campbell, 2 January 1905, Blood Agency letterbook, 1903–5, GA.
  43. 43. Venne, Indian Acts and Amendments 1868–1975, 25. There may have been a time, however, when women who “married out” had to produce proof of a “legal” marriage before they could receive their fifty dollars for ten years’ annuities. In 1895 Indian Commissioner A.E. Forget informed Nancy LaVallie that she would need to sign papers before a local (Swift Current) Justice of the Peace or Minister of the Gospel and to produce evidence of her legal marriage. See A.E. Forget to Nancy LaVallie, 18 April 1895, file 1239 pt. 7, vol. 3594, RG 10, LAC.
  44. 44. Rev. W. Nicolls to Assistant Commissioner of Indian Affairs, 1 April 1889, file 1564 pt. 4, vol. 3559, RG 10, LAC.
  45. 45. A. Forget to Rev. Nicolls, 4 April 1889, file 1564 pt. 4, vol. 3559, RG 10, LAC.
  46. 46. Report from the Duck Lake Agency, 4 August 1887, file 1239 pt. 8, vol. 3594, RG 10, LAC.
  47. 47. R.S. McKenzie to Indian Commissioner, 17 April 1893, file 1239 pt. 8, vol. 3594, RG 10, LAC.
  48. 48. Robert D. Watt, introduction to Woodward’s Catalogue 1898–1953: The Shopping Guide of the West (Vancouver: J.J. Douglas, 1977), 66, 77, 96.
  49. 49. Grace Lee Nute, ed., Documents Relating to Northwest Missions (Saint Paul: Minnesota Historical Society, 1942), 389.
  50. 50. J. Hugonnard, 17 December 1904, file 74 pt. 3, vol. 3559, RG 10, LAC.
  51. 51. W. Murison to D. Laird, 11 February 1905, file 74 pt. 3, vol. 3559, RG 10, LAC.
  52. 52. J.A.J. McKenna to W. Murison, 25 February 1905, file 74 pt. 3, vol. 3559, RG 10, LAC.
  53. 53. Extract, letter by W.E. Jones, 24 January 1890, file 486–2-5, vol. 6816, RG 10, LAC.
  54. 54. Deputy Superintendent General of Indian Affairs to the Bishop of Qu’Appelle, 11 February 1895, file 486–2-5, vol. 6816, RG 10, LAC.
  55. 55. Deputy Superintendent General to W.E. Jones, 16 May 1895, file 486–2-5, vol. 6816, RG 10, LAC.
  56. 56. M. Millar to D. Laird, 18 July 1907, file 74 pt. 4, vol. 3559, RG 10, LAC.
  57. 57. M. Millar to D. Laird, 7 August 1907, file 74 pt. 4, vol. 3559, RG 10, LAC.
  58. 58. “N. J.” to D. Laird, 11 December 1903, file 74 pt. 5, vol. 3559, RG 10, LAC.
  59. 59. D. Laird to Thomas Aspdin, 18 December 1903, file 74 pt. 5, vol. 3559, RG 10, LAC.
  60. 60. “J.J.” to D. Laird, 28 December 1903, file 74 pt. 5, vol. 3559, RG 10, LAC.
  61. 61. E. McKenzie, “The case of J.J. and his wife N.,” 6 October 1904, file 74 pt. 5, vol. 3559, RG 10, LAC.
  62. 62. Ibid.
  63. 63. T. Aspdin to D. Laird, 30 December 1903, file 74 pt. 5, vol. 3559, RG 10, LAC.
  64. 64. T. Aspdin to D. Laird, 13 January 1904, file 74 pt. 5, vol. 3559, RG 10, LAC.
  65. 65. Carry the Kettle and Crooked Arm to D. Laird, 8 January 1904, file 74 pt. 5, vol. 3559, RG 10, LAC.
  66. 66. T. Aspdin to D. Laird, 13 January 1904.
  67. 67. D. Laird to T. Aspdin, 2 January 1904, file 74 pt. 5, vol. 3559, RG 10, LAC.
  68. 68. D. Laird to “N. J.,” 29 December 1903, file 74 pt. 5, vol. 3559, RG 10, LAC.
  69. 69. T. Aspdin to D. Laird, 21 May 1904, file 74 pt. 5, vol. 3559, RG 10, LAC.
  70. 70. Rev. I.J. Taylor, “Extracts from the Journal of the Rev. I.J. Taylor for October, November, and December 1891,” p. 2, Saskatchewan Archives Board (SAB).
  71. 71. I.J. Taylor to the Bishop of Saskatchewan, 19 April 1892, SAB.
  72. 72. Taylor, “Extracts,” p. 3.
  73. 73. S.R. Marlatt to D. Laird, 28 September 1906, file 74 pt. 30, vol. 3559, RG 10, LAC.
  74. 74. Arthur Hall to S. Marlatt, 20 August 1906, file 74 pt. 30, vol. 3559, RG 10, LAC.
  75. 75. Samuel Marsden to S. Marlatt, 20 August 1906, file 74 pt. 30, vol. 3559, RG 10, LAC.
  76. 76. Unnamed author to undisclosed recipient, 1 February 1912, file 64, 535, vol. 3832, RG 10, LAC.
  77. 77. Robert V. Sinclair, The Rules and Practices Before the Parliament of Canada Upon Bills of Divorce (Toronto: The Carswell Co., 1915), 36.
  78. 78. W. Sibbald to D. Laird, 12 December 1903, file 74, pt. 16, vol. 3559, RG 10, LAC.
  79. 79. D. Laird to W. Sibbald, 16 December 1903, file 74, pt. 16, vol. 3559, RG 10, LAC.
  80. 80. P.C.H. Primrose to D. Laird, 13 March 1903, file 74, pt. 20, vol. 3559, RG 10, LAC.
  81. 81. D. Laird to P. Primrose, 19 March 1903, file 74, pt. 20, vol. 3559, RG 10, LAC.
  82. 82. P.C.H. Primrose to the Commissioner, NWMP, 25 March 1903, file 411/03, vol. 256, series A-1, Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RG 18), LAC.
  83. 83. Rev. S.D. Chown to Frank Oliver, 6 October 1910, file 57,045–1, vol. 3816, RG 18, LAC.
  84. 84. D. Scott to S. Chown, 19 October 1910, file 57,045–1, vol. 3816, RG 18, LAC.
  85. 85. T. Albert Moore to J.M. [sic] McLean, 27 June 1912, file 57,045–1, vol. 3816, RG 18, LAC.
  86. 86. J.D. McLean to T. Moore, 3 July 1912, file 57,045–1, vol. 3816, RG 18, LAC.
  87. 87. See file 74, pt. 7, vol. 3559, RG 10, LAC.
  88. 88. Indian agent, Birtle (Manitoba), to the DIA Secretary, 7 September 1898, file 94, vol. 3881, RG 10, LAC.
  89. 89. W. Sibbald to D. Laird, 22 December 1900, file 74, pt. 12, vol. 3559, RG 10, LAC.
  90. 90. Frog Lake Community Club, Land of Red and White, 1875–1975 (Heinsburg: s.n., 1977), 82.
  91. 91. Inspector J. Howe, “Report for the month ending 32 December 1891,” 7 January 1892, file RCMP 1892, nos. 43–54, box 58, RG 18, LAC.
  92. 92. Esther Goldfrank, Goldfrank fieldnotes, p. 21, GA.
  93. 93. Ibid., p. 367.
  94. 94. Indian agent Crooked Lake to undisclosed recipient, 26 February 1897, file 94, vol. 3881, RG 10, LAC.
  95. 95. Laird to undisclosed recipient, 21 April 1906, file 74, pt. 3, vol. 3559, RG 10, LAC.
  96. 96. H.E. Sibbald to David Laird, 22 March 1904, file 74 pt. 16, vol. 3559, RG 10, LAC.
  97. 97. T. Cory to D. Laird, 7 August 1906, file 74, pt. 3, vol. 3559, RG 10, LAC.
  98. 98. T. Cory to D. Laird, 5 July 1907, file 74, pt. 3, vol. 3559, RG 10, LAC.
  99. 99. D. Laird to Indian agent, 21 April l906, file 74, pt. 3, vol. 3559, RG 10, LAC.
  100. 100. J. McKenna to George Mann, 5 October 1906, file 74, pt. 4, vol. 3559, RG 10, LAC.
  101. 101. Indian agent, Blood Reserve, to Indian agent, Browning, Montana, 23 November 1904, vol. 1722, RG 10, LAC.
  102. 102. Horton H. Miller to officer in charge, Piapot Reserve (Saskatchewan), 5 December 1910.
  103. 103. “JC,” “Memorandum for the Deputy Minister of Justice,” 15 May 1914, p. 4, file 1299–1914, vol. 2406, int. 163, RG 13, LAC.
  104. 104. John E. Crankshaw and Alexandre Chevalier, Crankshaw’s Criminal Code of Canada, 5th ed. (Toronto: The Carswell Co., 1924), 374.
  105. 105. Transcript, R. v. Kekanus, file 94,189, vol. 3881, RG 10, LAC.
  106. 106. Ibid., 9–10.
  107. 107. Ibid., 12.
  108. 108. Ibid., 15.
  109. 109. Ibid., 17.
  110. 110. A.H. Maclean to A.W. Neill, 7 July 1906, file 94,189, vol. 3881, RG 10, LAC.
  111. 111. W.M. Halliday to A.W. Vowell, 7 August 1906, file 94,189, vol. 3881, RG 10, LAC.
  112. 112. W. Halliday to A. Vowell, 5 September 1906, file 94,189, vol. 3881, RG 10, LAC.
  113. 113. W. Halliday to A. Vowell, 7 August 1906.
  114. 114. DIA circular letter, 18 May 1906, file 94,189, vol. 3881, RG 10, LAC.
  115. 115. D. Laird to M. Millar, 23 July 1907, file 74, pt. 4, vol. 3559, RG 10, LAC.
  116. 116. Vowell to Pedley, 4 September 1906, file 94,189, vol. 3881, RG 10, LAC.
  117. 117. A.W. Neil to A.W. Vowell, 9 July 1906, file 94,189, vol. 3881, RG 10, LAC; Vowel to Pedley, 4 September 1906.
  118. 118. Halliday to McLean, (exact date obscured) 1907, file 486–2-5 pt 1, vol. 6816, RG 10, LAC.
  119. 119. A. McLean to A. Vowell, 19 September 1906, file 486–2-5 pt 1, vol. 6816, RG 10, LAC.
  120. 120. J. McKenna to the DIA Secretary, 5 October 1907, file 486–2-5 pt 1, vol. 6816, RG 10, LAC.
  121. 121. A. McLean to D. Laird, 9 August 1907, file 486–2-5, pt 1 vol. 6816, RG 10, LAC.
  122. 122. A. McKenna to M. Millar, 25 July 1907, file 74 pt. 4, vol. 3559, RG 10, LAC.
  123. 123. M. Millar to Indian Commissioner, 2 August 1907, file 74 pt. 4, vol. 3559, RG 10, LAC.
  124. 124. Memorandum to the Deputy Superintendent General, 24 February 1908, file 180, 636 pt. 1, vol. 3990, RG 10, LAC.
  125. 125. Ibid., pt. 5.
  126. 126. Ibid., pt. 6.
  127. 127. In 1916 in British Columbia, Indian agents were appointed through the province as registrars of births, marriages, and deaths among Indians. They were authorized to issue licenses for marriages and were also authorized to perform marriages, although they were to “guard against any such exercise of the power to perform marriages between Indians as might impinge upon the rights of clergymen as to the performance of marriages.” The purpose was to “provide a ready means of marriage by civil contract for Indians who wish to be so married, and especially for those who, if not provided with such means, would resort to so-called marriage by tribal or Indian custom, or to concubinage.” They were to keep a scrapbook in which all the forms were to be pasted. See H.E. Young, “form letter to Indian agents,” 12 December 1916, file 64,535, vol. 3832, RG 10, LAC. In British Columbia an amendment to the 1897 Births, Deaths and Marriages Act was stated to apply to all races including Aboriginals, Chinese, and Japanese. The act was amended in 1899 to exclude Aboriginals from provincial registration. The act was amended again in 1916 to include the registration of Aboriginal people, with special forms for “Indian registrations” that were discontinued after 1956. Claire E. Gilbert (British Columbia Provincial Archives), correspondence with author, 4 February 2004. Confusion continued, however, as agents worked with two sets of instructions regarding “Indian marriages,” one from the province and one from the DIA. For this confusion see Chas. Perry to DIA Secretary, 12 December 1932, file 64,535, vol. 3832, RG 10, LAC. Perry refers to a then recent decision of a stipendiary magistrate that upheld the validity of marriage according to Aboriginal law.
  128. 128. Deputy Minister of Justice to Deputy Superintendent General of Indian Affairs, 32 May 1908, file 32345, vol. 3762, RG 10, LAC.
  129. 129. Joan Sangster, Regulating Girls and Women: Sexuality, Family, and the Law in Ontario, 1920–1960 (Don Mills: Oxford University Press, 2001), 177.
  130. 130. J. McLean to undisclosed recipient, 5 August 1908, file 94,189, vol. 3881, RG 10, LAC.
  131. 131. David Laird to Edward Paupanakis, 5 October 1908, file 74 pt. 21, vol. 3559, RG 10, LAC.
  132. 132. R.N. Wilson to the DIA Secretary, 4 June 1909, folder 59, Blood Indian Agency Series, GA.
  133. 133. Frank Pedley to R.N. Wilson, 12 June 1909, folder 59, Blood Indian Agency Series, GA.
  134. 134. DIA Secretary to Thomas Cory, 22 November 1899, file 94, 189, vol. 3881, RG 10, LAC.
  135. 135. Mary R. Bogart to DIA Secretary, 29 November 1909, file 57,045–1, vol. 3816, RG 10, LAC.
  136. 136. Emily Cummings to the DIA, 19 February 1910, file 57,045–1, vol. 3816, RG 10, LAC.
  137. 137. DIA Secretary to M. Bogart, 2 December 1909, file 57,045–1, vol. 3816, RG 10, LAC.
  138. 138. Pedley to the National Council of Women, 28 February 1910, file 57,045–1, vol. 3816, RG 10, LAC.
  139. 139. Mariana Valverde, The Age of Light, Soap and Water: Moral Reform in English Canada, 1885–1925 (Toronto: McClelland and Stewart, 1991), 54–57.
  140. 140. The News (Toronto), 12 November 1910.
  141. 141. The Globe (Toronto), 12 November 1910.
  142. 142. “Action taken by the Moral and Social Reform Council of Canada,” 23 September 1910, file 32345, vol. 3762, RG 10, LAC.
  143. 143. Assistant Deputy Superintendent General of Indian Affairs to the Deputy Minister of Justice, 6 October 1910, file 32345, vol. 3762, RG 10, LAC.
  144. 144. Oliver to Rev. Canon Tucker, 25 October 1910, file 32345, vol. 3762, RG 10, LAC.
  145. 145. Assistant Deputy and Secretary to W.M. Halliday, 17 February 1912, file 64,535, vol. 3832, RG 10, LAC.
  146. 146. “J.C.,” “Memorandum.”
  147. 147. Ibid., p. 1.
  148. 148. Memorandum, “Question as to what action, if any should be taken against the Indian ‘T.M.F.,’” file 1299–1914, vol. 2406, int. 163, RG 13, LAC
  149. 149. Deputy Minister of Justice to Assistant Deputy and DIA Secretary, 20 May 1914, file 1299–1914, vol. 2406, int. 163, RG 13, LAC.
  150. 150. Antoinette Burton, Gender, Sexuality and Colonial Modernities (London and New York: Routledge, 1999), 1.

EIGHT Conclusion

  1. 1. Western Standard Illustrated Weekly (Calgary), 12 June 1913, n.p. (first article, editorial).
  2. 2. Ibid.
  3. 3. Ibid.
  4. 4. Quoted in W.L. Morton, Manitoba: A History, 2nd ed. (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1967), 91.
  5. 5. Ibid., n.p.
  6. 6. Catherine A. Cavanaugh, “’No Place For A Woman’: Engendering Western Canadian Settlement,” Western Historical Quarterly 28 (Winter 1997): 493–518.
  7. 7. Ibid., 505.
  8. 8. Ibid., 510.
  9. 9. Ibid., 509–10.
  10. 10. Ibid., 510.
  11. 11. Sharon Helen Venne, ed., Indian Acts and Amendments 1868–1975: An Indexed Collection (Saskatoon: University of Saskatchewan Native Law Centre, 1981), 25.

APPENDIX

  1. 1. Veronica Strong-Boag, The New Day Recalled: Lives of Girls and Women in English Canada, 1919–1939 (Markham: Penguin Books, 1988), 95.
  2. 2. James G. Snell and Cynthia Comacchio Abeele, “Regulating Nuptiality: Restricting Access to Marriage in Early Twentieth-Century English-Speaking Canada,” Canadian Historical Review 69, no. 4 (1988): 468.
  3. 3. Ibid., 470.
  4. 4. Ibid., 473.
  5. 5. Ibid., 477.
  6. 6. Lesley Erickson, “Constructed and Contested Truths: Aboriginal Suicide, Law and Colonialism in the Canadian West(s), 1823–1927,” Canadian Historical Review 86, no. 4 (December 2005): 614.
  7. 7. M. Christianson to the DIA Secretary, 12 November 1941, file 486–2-8, pt. 1, vol. 6816, RG 10, LAC.
  8. 8. Freda Ahenakew and H.C. Wolfart, eds. and trans., Kohkôminawak Otâcimowiniwâwa: Our Grandmothers’ Lives as Told in Their Own Words (Saskatoon: Fifth House Publishers, 1992), 79.
  9. 9. Duncan Campbell Scott, “Circular to Indian Agents,” 2 January 1914, file 486–2-8, vol. 6816, RG 10, LAC. On one copy of this circular in this file a note to the deputy minister is written saying that “a couple of hundred copies have been obtained.”
  10. 10. Thomas Dewhirst to the Minister of Indian Affairs, 17 August 1914, file 486–2-8, vol. 6816, RG 10, LAC.
  11. 11. A.S. Williams to D. Scott, 20 June 1917, file 486–2-8, vol. 6816, RG 10, LAC.
  12. 12. Letter, Charles C. Perry to the DIA Secretary, 20 October 1921, file 1921, 2203, vol. 263, RG 13, LAC.
  13. 13. Letter, E.L. Newcombe to D. C. Scott, 10 February 1921, file 1921, 156–175, vol. 255, RG 13, LAC.
  14. 14. Canada, House of Commons Debates (26 May 1921), vol. 4, p. 3907.
  15. 15. Letter, Rev. T. Ferrier to DIA Deputy Superintendent General, 25 January 1924, file 486–2-8, vol. 6816, RG 10, LAC.
  16. 16. Letter, DIA Deputy Superintendent General to Rev. T. Ferrier, 25 January 1924, file 486–2-8, vol. 6816, RG 10, LAC.
  17. 17. Letter, John Hawksley to J.D. McLean, 3 April 1925, file 486–2-8, vol. 6816, RG 10, LAC.
  18. 18. Telegram, J.D. McLean to J. Hawksley, 1 April 1925, file 486–2-8, vol. 6816, RG 10, LAC.
  19. 19. Department of Justice, “Opinion of the Department of Justice,” ca. 1933, file 486–2-8, vol. 6816, RG 10, LAC.
  20. 20. Whether those defined as “Indians” are British subjects or not has been a subject of debate. In their submission to the Special Joint Committee of the Senate and the House of Commons appointed to examine and consider the Indian Act, Session 1946, the Grand Council, North American Indian Brotherhood, argued that as wards of the Crown, Indians were not British subjects. They did not have the powers and privileges of British subjects who, “in the ordinary accepted sense, are those born on British soil, or naturalized, who at the age of 21 are fully competent persons, competent to vote at Federal and Provincial elections, competent to vote on Referenda or Plebiscites; have a voice in Parliament and representation therein; may run for office in Federal and Provincial elections; are competent to manage their own affairs so that they may buy or sell their real holdings from whom and to whomever they choose without permission of any Governmental body; are fully competent to sue and be sued before any of the Courts of this country, have absolute freedom of testation, etc., etc. But the Indian is in an entirely different category. He has none of the powers mentioned above.” See Canada, Special Joint Committee of the Senate and the House of Commons Appointed to Examine and Consider the Indian Act, minutes of proceedings and evidence no. 21, Tuesday, 13 August 1946 (Ottawa: Edmond Cloutier, 1946), 837.
  21. 21. T.R.L. MacInnes to Frank Edwards, 23 November 1939, file 486–2-8, vol. 6816, RG 10, LAC.
  22. 22. DIA Secretary to S.L. Macdonald, Indian agent, Battleford, 3 January 1933, file 486–2-8, vol. 6816, RG 10, LAC.
  23. 23. C.P. Schmidt, quoting Dr. Alfred Montreuil, to the DIA Secretary, 15 January 1934, file 486–2-8, vol. 6816, RG 10, LAC.
  24. 24. W.E.J. Paul to the Registrar General, Saskatchewan Department of Public Health, 30 October 1941, file 486–2-8, vol. 6816, RG 10, LAC.
  25. 25. W. Paul to W. Christianson, 30 October 1941, file 486–2-8, pt. 1, vol. 6816, RG 10, LAC.
  26. 26. W. Paul to Registrar General, 30 October 1941.
  27. 27. Letters, F. Edwards to T. MacInnes, 6 November and 17 November 1939, file 486–2-8, pt. 1, vol. 6816, RG 10, LAC.
  28. 28. T. MacInnes to F. Edwards, 23 November 1939, file 486–2-8, pt. 1, vol. 6816, RG 10, LAC.
  29. 29. J.P.B. Ostrander to T. MacInnes, 17 April 1940, file 486–2-8, pt. 1, vol. 6816, RG 10, LAC.
  30. 30. F. Edwards to T. MacInnes, 31 July 1940, file 486–2-8, pt. 1, vol. 6816, RG 10, LAC.
  31. 31. Letters, T. MacInnes to F. Edwards, 8 August and 27 November 1940, file 486–2-8, pt. 1, vol. 6816, RG 10, LAC.
  32. 32. A.E. Caldwell to R.A. Hoey, 12 December 1939, file 44, box 5, H.W. McGill Papers, GA.
  33. 33. T. MacInnes to R. MacMillan, 20 August 1941, file 44, box 5, H.W. McGill Papers, GA.
  34. 34. W. Cory, memorandum prepared to T. MacInnes, 13 August 1941, file 44, box 5, H.W. McGill Papers, GA.
  35. 35. T. MacInnes to J. Ostrander, 23 December 1941, file 44, box 5, H.W. McGill Papers, GA.
  36. 36. Office of the Indian Agent, File Hills Agency, January 1938, file P-3, vol. 9139, RG 10, LAC.
  37. 37. Quoted in Douglas Sanders, “Indian Women: A Brief History of ther Roles and Rights,” McGill Law Journal 21, no.4 (1975): 665.
  38. 38. Canada, Special Joint Committee, Minutes of Proceedings and Evidence, no. 3, Friday, 14 March 1947, p. 85.
  39. 39. Ibid., 157.
  40. 40. Ibid., 199.
  41. 41. Ibid., 202.
  42. 42. Sharon Helen Venne, Indian Acts and Amendments, 1868–1975: An Indexed Collection (Saskatoon: University of Saskatchewan Native Law Centre, 1981), 315.

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