Index
Numbers in italics indicate photographs. Where provinces or states have been added to locations, the current ones are given.
Abbott, Frederick H., The Administration of Indian Affairs in Canada, 232–34, 241, 267
Abeele, Cynthia Comacchio, 92, 287
Abikoki, Jim and family, 218
Aboriginal marriage, 31–37, 174–75. See also marriage, by consent; kinship in Aboriginal society; polygamy
Aboriginal words related to, 264–66
alignment of legality of with Christianity, 187
arranged, 55, 107, 124, 235–42, 250
attitude of missionaries toward, 35–36, 130–32, 156–57, 238–39, 246–54, 257–58, 290
comparison of United States and Canada, 142
debate on legal validity of, 104, 134–43, 160–65, 174–5, 188–90, 202–3, 213, 225–27, 247, 266–67
definitions related to, 10, 104–7, 126–27
effect on women’s Indian status, 245
family involvement in, 107, 119
in fur trade society, 6, 21–29, 35–39, 128, 134–39, 169–70
government recognition of, 11–16, 149, 155–68, 171–74, 201–2, 214, 232–42, 248–53, 256–57, 260–61, 268–69, 284–85, 292–95 (See also Department of Indian Affairs; Indian agents)
legal decisions concerning, 11, 134–42
Métis, 5, 8, 35–39, 68–71, 151–52, 202–3, 227, 245
oral traditions concerning, 112–13
persistence of, 164–66, 216–23, 228, 259–60
representations of, 9–11, 27, 127–30
as a social obligation, 117–18
Aboriginal people, 9, 14, 16, 216, 268. See also Aboriginal women
attitude of missionaries toward, 130–32, 150–61, 180–81, 195–200, 223–24 (See also polygamy; attitude of missionaries toward)
flexibility of gendered roles, 122–25
intermarriage as central to relations with Euro-Canadians, 31
Latter Day Saints (Mormon) prophesies concerning, 205
representations of, 11–12, 20–21, 70, 123, 126, 134–5, 159
representations of society, 30–31, 108, 113, 120, 180–82, 234–35
Aboriginal women
ability to testify against husbands in court, 212–13, 219, 222
as chiefs, 124
determination of Indian status of, 12–13, 168–70, 245–46, 294–95
employment of, 118–19, 132–34, 180, 197, 198
flexibility of gendered roles, 123–25
legislation concerning First
Nations, 143, 163, 168–70, 189, 243, 248, 285–86, 294 (See also Criminal Code; Indian Act; Ordinance Respecting Marriage)
legislation concerning Métis, 169, 201–2 (See also scrip, Métis)
relations with Euro-Canadian men, 38, 70–73, 87, 99, 149–60, 150, 153–57, 180–82, 289
representations of, 11–12, 15–16, 53, 68, 127–29, 133, 149–55, 260–61, 282
restrictions on freedom of movement of, 152–53, 180–82
social roles and status of, 111, 115–17, 128–29, 133, 253–54
as widows, 14, 115, 117–19, 189, 234, 238, 243, 260
Aborigines Protection Society (aps) (England), 11, 149, 156, 161
abuse (spousal), 133–34, 156, 181, 250–52
Aboriginal beliefs concerning, 106, 111–13
in plural marriages, 49
Acres, Lizzie, 236
adultery, 258
in Aboriginal society, 110–11, 114, 121
attitude of church toward, 97
DIA efforts to combat (See bigamy, DIA efforts to combat)
legal decisions concerning, 183, 217
Afghanistan, 11
African-Americans, 37
African-Canadians, 39
Africans, Africa, 27, 40, 175, 195, 203–04. See also Bethell v. Hildyard
colonial intervention in marriage laws, 176–80
missionaries, 199
age of consent, 224–25. See also Aboriginal marriage, age at; marriage, age at
agriculture, 39, 83. See also farm instructors; homesteading
Aboriginal people’s involvement in, 111, 152, 206
gendering of, 283
women’s involvement in, 39–40, 52
Alberta Star, 89
alcohol, alcoholism, 39, 49, 77, 78
Alert Bay, BC, 262
alimony, 71
alternative marriages, 38–40, 68
Ancient Pipe, 109
Anglicans, Anglican Church, 26, 247–48. See also Bourne, H.T.; Canadian Churchman; Church Missionary Society; Colenso, J.W.; Hines, John; Stocken, Canon H.W. Gibbon; Taylor, Rev. I.J.; Tim, J.W.; Trivett, Samuel
first marriages of Aboriginal people, 165
organizations, 149, 156, 201, 204, 272
relations with other churches, 253–54
Anglo-Saxons, 65
Anishinabe, 128. See also Ojibway
annuities, 123
deserted wives’ entitlement to, 234
eligibility for, 169–71, 173, 200–201, 204, 239, 245, 266
annulment of marriages, 66–67, 95–96, 247, 257
anthropology, 10, 28, 68–70, 132
Anti-Polygamy Standard, 49
Apiteheiskouis (Chatelaine), 202
APS. See Aborigines Protection Society
Arcand, Abraham, 203
Arcand, Julia and Angelique, 202
Asokoa (fictional character), 130
Assiniboine (Nakoda), 119, 249–50
Athabasca district, 121
Awatoyakew (Mary Brown), 140–42
bachelor tax, 83
Bacon, N’Pastchuk, 202
baptism, 138, 195–98, 219–20, 253
Barman, Jean, 180
Battleford (SK), 51, 73, 292. See also Saskatchewan Herald
Baussard, Jeanne Josephine Ida, 95–96
beads, 122
Bear Chief, Chief, 107
Bear’s Shin Bone, 13–14, 86, 222–23
Beaulieu, François, 121
Begin, J.V., 207
Bennett, R.B., 90
Benton River Press, 21
Bethell v. Hildyard (S. Africa), 186–88, 226, 249, 275
Bible, 41
bigamy, 256–57. See also polygamy
definition of, 16, 52, 85, 209, 262–67, 271–72, 274–76
DIA efforts to combat, 15, 92, 185, 235, 243, 254–55, 290–91
as grounds for divorce, 269–70
legal decisions concerning, 15–16, 91, 96–97, 137
Big Swan, 111
Big Wolf (daughter of), 109
Binnie-Clark, Georgina, 39, 78–79
bison. See buffalo
Blackfoot, 87, 105–9, 111, 159, 199, 208–9, 224. See also Elk-Hollering-in-the-Water; Kainai (Bloods); Middle Woman No Coat; Piikani (Peigan); Siksika
first Christian marriage, 165
lack of word for “polygamy,” 115
population, 132
representations of society, 108, 120, 124
response to Latter Day Saints (Mormon) missionaries, 205
Blake, Edward, 44
blankets, 272
Bloods. See Kainai
Boag, Peter, 74
Board of Indian Commissioners (U.S.), 232
Bohen, Sister (nun), 240
Borden, Robert L., 77
Borden (SK), 54
Borne, Henry. See Dutch Henry
Bourne, Rev. H.T., 149, 153, 156, 214
Bowell, Sir Mackenzie, 160
Boyer River Band (AB), 295
Breland, Marie Ann, 37
bride purchase, 27. See also gifts
representations of, 149, 154, 157, 248
bridewealth, 176
British Columbia, 45, 72, 180–82, 289
marriage legislation, 54, 90, 174
British Empire. See also Africans, Africa; East Indies; India
colonial policies on Indigenous marriage, 174–77
colonial policies on polygamy, 13, 195–97, 227
principle of indirect rule, 175
status and rights of subjects, 24, 99, 276, 291
British North America Act, 290
Broken Head Reserve (MB), 173
Brooks (AB), 80
Brooks, Edward J., 123
Brown, Jennifer S.H., 31, 137–38
Brown, Mary. See Awatoyakew
Browning, MT, 261
Brunette, Lottie, 92
Budge, William, 128
Buffalo Bill. See Cody, Buffalo Bill
Buffalo Bird Woman. See Maxidiwiac
Burbridge, George W., 156–57, 159, 161
Burgess, A.M., 84
Burton, Antoinette, 277
Bush, George W., 2
Caldwell, A.E., 293
Calgary (AB), 73, 79, 95, 280–81
Calgary Sunday Sun, 2
Calgary Women’s Press Club, 280
Canada, 30
colonization of Western Canada, 4–6, 8, 40, 59–60
government of, 28, 155, 261 (See also Department of Indian Affairs; legislation)
role of marriage in nation building, 2–9, 14, 16–17, 20–22, 28–31, 44–45, 56–60, 74–75, 152, 175, 280–86
same-sex marriage debate in, 2
three legal traditions of, 10
Canada Gazette, 25
Canada Lancet, 84
Canadian Churchman, 27, 29, 56, 57
Canadian Pacific Railway (CPR), 38, 51–52, 82
Card, Charles Ora, 42–43, 48, 84, 205
Card, Zina Young, 42, 46–49, 89
Cardston (AB), 45, 48, 84–85, 87–88, 89, 205, 293. See also Card, Charles Ora
Cardston Record, 88
Carrot, The, 120
Carry the Kettle, Chief, 251
Catholics, Catholicism. See also Grandin, Bishop Vital; Hugonnard, Fr. Joseph; Riou, Fr. J.
attitude toward divorce and remarriage, 97, 159, 246
inter-faith marriages of, 92, 95–96
marriages of Aboriginal people, 165, 219
relations with other churches, 248, 253–54
Cavanaugh, Catherine, 40, 282, 283
censuses and enumerations
1891 census, 38
Aboriginal population, 121–22, 129, 199–200, 207
Charnock, Martin, 178
Chatelaine, Jacob, Marie, and Pierre, 202
Chesson, F.W., 156
Cheyenne, 121
childbearing, 134
childlessness. See infertility
child marriages, 14, 53, 91–92, 226, 259–60. See also marriage, age at
children, 11, 15, 197–98, 224. See also illegitimacy
consequences of divorce on, 26, 112, 250, 294–95
eligibility for rations and annuities, 223
paternity of, 176
in polygamous families, 42, 83–84, 119
separation from parents, 15, 260 (See also schools)
support of, 171, 254, 264, 270
value of in Blackfoot society, 109–10
Chisholm, Mrs., 57
Chown, Rev. Samuel D., 257
Christian conjugality. See marriage, ideal type
Christians, Christianity (mainline), 4, 27, 31, 91–92, 149. See also Anglicans, Anglican Church; Catholics, Catholicism; Congregationalists, Congregationalism; Methodists, Methodism; United Church of Canada
attitude toward cohabitation, 38, 71–72, 154–55
attitude toward polygamy, 13, 130, 194, 198–99, 204–5, 227, 246–48
clergy role in marriage ceremonies, 35–37, 67–68, 172
conflict over government policy, 246–48
conversion to (See baptism)
efforts to combat Aboriginal marriage, 165, 180, 238–39, 251–52, 272–74
inter-church relations, 248, 250, 253–54
missionary work among Ukrainians, 53
model of marriage, 22, 143–44 (See also monogamy, lifelong)
Church Missionary Society (CMS), 149, 156, 195, 198. See also Anglicans, Anglican Church
Church of England. See Anglicans, Anglican Church
citizenship, 24, 52, 96. See also British Empire; enfranchisement
clans (Aboriginal), 110
Clink, D.L., 201
CMS. See Church Missionary Society
Cochrane, Senator Matthew H., 48
Cocking, Matthew (daughters of), 32
Cody, Buffalo Bill, 212
cohabitation, 86, 154–55, 171, 256, 273 (See also Aboriginal marriage)
definition of, 104, 266, 274–75
co-husbands (nita-yim), 114
Colenso, Bishop John William, 195–96
Collier’s Weekly, 51
colonialism, 30–31, 64, 132, 174–76, 196, 224. See also British Empire
Colonist, The (Winnipeg), 55
Comacchio, Cynthia. See Abeele, Cynthia Comacchio
Comaroff, Jean and John, 178
common law, 22, 24, 136–40, 275
communal and co-operative living, 50, 52, 55–56. See also Hutterites
concubinage. See cohabitation
Congregationalists, Congregational Church, 272
Connolly, Suzanne, 31
Connolly v. Woolrich and Johnson et al., 11, 134–38, 186–88, 275–76
consent divorce. See divorce by consent
consent marriage. See Aboriginal marriage; marriage, by consent
Conservative Party. See Macdonald, John A.
Cook, W.H., 32
Cooke, Hazel, 94
Cory, W. (DIA solicitor), 293
cost of living, 246
Cotler, Irwin, 10
country marriages. See marriage, by consent
Court (SK), 98
Court of Indian Offences (U.S.), 203, 211
courtship, 73, 82. See also spouses, selection of
co-wives, 119, 198. See also polygamy
relations between, 115, 120–22, 133–34
representations of of, 131
Crane Woman, 111
Crankshaw’s Criminal Code of Canada, 96–97
Cranworth, Lord (Robert Monsey Rolfe), 25–26
Cree, Mable, 216
Cree, Plains Cree, 165. See also Bear, Glecia; Brass Eleanor; Fine Day; Poundmaker; Star Blanket, Chief; Suzanne “Pasde-Nom”
marriage among, 113–115, 268–69
and word for “family,” 127
and word for “polygamy,” 115
arson, 149
horse killing, 120
treason, 46
Criminal Code of Canada, 16, 289
treatment of polygamy in, 84–86, 209–11, 222, 224, 227, 276
treatment of spousal desertion in, 290
Crooked Arm, Headman, 251
Crooked Lake (SK), 208, 248, 260, 268
Cross, Alexander, 104, 135, 138–39
curfews, 68
custom of the country (mariage à la façon du pays). See Aboriginal marriage; marriage, by consent
Dakota nation, 113, 119–20. See also McKay, Eva
Darwinism. See natural selection
Dawes Severalty Act, 1887 (U.S.), 206, 211
Deerfoot, 159
Delorme, Marie Rose, 69
deMallie, Raymond, 105
Denig, Edwin Thompson, Five Indian Tribes of the Upper Missouri, 124, 198
Department of Indian Affairs (DIA), 9–11, 14–15, 234–35, 268, 270–71
efforts to end interracial marriage, 155 (See also reserves, confinement to)
efforts to eradicate polygamy, 13–16, 127, 206–7, 210, 213–14, 219–24, 227–29, 240, 288–91
failure to eradicate polygamy, 166, 199–201, 266–67, 275
policies on Aboriginal marriage and divorce laws, 232–35, 269–70, 275, 290–91
requirement of employees to marry, 155
Department of the Interior, 74
desertion (spousal), 8, 40–41, 50, 92–97, 130. See also separation
Criminal Code treatment of, 290
effect on wives of, 77, 220, 224, 269
Indian Act treatment of, 170–71
DIA. See Department of Indian Affairs
Dick, Lyle, 83
digging sticks, 111
diseases. See smallpox; tuberculosis; venereal diseases
divorce (legal), 3. See also remarriage; separation
Christian attitude toward, 6, 26–27, 29–31, 97, 157–59
diversity of beliefs on, 41–42, 50, 55–58, 66, 90–91
effect on women’s homesteading rights, 76
grounds for, 25–26, 41, 58, 93–96, 250–53, 270
legal decisions concerning, 159
legality of in United States, 56–58, 159
legislation concerning, 8
divorce by consent, 5, 9–16, 111–12, 137–38, 173–74, 227, 267. See also remarriage; separation
government policy on, 161–63, 242–43, 255–58, 269–70, 294–95
prevalence of, 171
divorce ceremonies, 67. See also gifts, return of following separation or divorce
domestic labour, 8, 38, 79, 80
Dominion Lands Act (DLA), 74–75, 96, 206
dowries, 53. See also bridewealth; gifts
Drumheller (AB), 94
Duck Lake Agency (SK), 208. See also McKenzie, R.S.
Dungloe (SK), 77
Dutch Henry (Henry Borne), 41
East Indians, East Indies, 27
effect of horse on, 133
following collapse of HBC monopoly, 282
women-owned businesses, 38–39, 281
Edmonton Bulletin, 46, 54, 56–57, 74. See also Fort Edmonton
Edmunds Act (1882, U.S.), 42, 210, 212–13
Edmunds-Tucker Act (1887, U.S.), 86
education, 53. See also schools
Edwards, Henrietta Muir, 25
Eglington, T., 41
Elk-Hollering-in-the-Water, 107
Elk-Yells-in-the-Water, 124
elopement, 110
Elton, David H., 89
enfranchisement, 42, 169, 200, 281, 289
England. See Anglo-Saxons; British Empire; United Kingdom
Erickson, Dan, 88
Erickson, Lesley, 288
ethnology, 132
eugenic legislation, 287
Euro-Canadian men. See also Aboriginal women, relations with Euro-Canadian men; Indian agents
conversion to Mormonism, 45
pressure to marry, 149–50, 181
unmarried, 6, 22, 38, 54, 80–81, 83
Euro-Canadian women, 30, 79, 118–19, 138. See also Doukhobors
employment of, 38–40, 128, 251
legal status and rights of, 24, 42, 46
married, 27–28, 45–46, 54–55, 98
rights under common law, 22–23
social status of, 8, 11, 79, 132, 197, 280–81
unmarried, 5–6, 8–10, 38–40, 79–80, 82, 197
Evangelical Churchman, The, 156
excommunication, 195
Faithful, George and Philomena, 259
family, 12, 75–78, 119, 179. See also Aboriginal marriage; agriculture, family farms; kinship in Aboriginal society; nuclear family
farm instructors (reserve), 72–73, 150, 155
farms. See agriculture; homesteading
femininity (social definition of), 52–53, 79–80
feminism, 280
File Hills Colony (SK), 220, 240–41, 294
Finnish people, 56
First Nations. See Aboriginal people
Fleming, Mrs. (Alberta rancher), 80
Forget, Amédée E., 127, 207–14, 220–21
Forget, Henriette, “Indian Women of the Western Provinces,” 127
Fort Belknap Agency, MT, 261
Fort Chipewyan (AB), 121
Fort Edmonton (AB), 37, 199. See also Edmonton Bulletin
Fort Ellice (MB), 122
Fort Macleod (AB), 38–39, 70–71, 73, 95, 129–30, 140, 222, 256. See also Fort Whoop-Up; Macleod Gazette
Fort Pelly (SK), 122
Fort Resolution (NWT), 121
Fort Whoop-Up (AB), 21. See also Fort Macleod
Fort Yukon (AK), 122
Fraser, Alexander, 138
Fraser, Florence, 95
Fraser v. Pouliot, 104, 138–39, 188
Free Cutter Woman, 222
free love. See sexual relations, extramarital
Frog Lake (AB), 259
fur trade society, 5, 31–32, 35, 198. See also Hudson’s Bay Company; North West Company
Gagnon, Capt., 74
Galbreath, John Jackson “Jack,” 205
gender (demographic imbalances in), 5, 122
gender roles, 30, 39, 224, 283–84, 288
in Aboriginal society, 104–06, 122–25, 128–29
imposition of, 3, 28, 74–75, 168, 241
in relation to marriage, 3, 24–27, 93–94, 112, 167, 252–53
representations of, 8, 21, 24–25, 27, 78–80, 84, 251, 282–83
gifts, 107–9, 126, 155, 160, 262
return of following separation or divorce, 112, 262–64
Gleichen (AB), 158
Glendining, Mary, 39
Glenn, Mrs. John, 282
Globe, The (Toronto), 151, 154–55
Globe and Mail, 16–17, 200–201
Godkin, Catherine, 75
Goldfrank, Esther, 108–9, 122–24, 259–60
Gölz, Annalee, 30
Gooderham, J.H., 72
Good Hunter, 111
Goulet, Keith, 127
Graham, H.V., 240
Graham, J.F., 200
Graham, William M., 238–39, 241, 261
Grant, John F. and Quarra, 37
Grewal, Interpal, 132
Grier, Lily, 70
Gros Ventre, 124
Gwynne, Justice, 56
Hämäläinen, Pekka, “The Rise and Fall of Plains Indian Horse Cultures,” 133–34
Hamona Colony (SK), 55
Hanks, Jane and Lucien, 109, 112–13, 118, 120, 124
Hardy, Thomas, The Mayor of Casterbridge, 65–66
Harmony Experiment. See Sojntula Colony
Harper, James, 32
Harper, Magnus, 33
Harper, Stephen, 2
Harriott, John Edward, 135
Haynes. W.R., 290
health certificates, 291
Henry, Alexander, the Younger, 122
heterosexuality (perceived threats to), 83. See also gender roles
Hidatsa. See Maxidiwiac
High River (AB), 159
historical records (reliability of), 134
Hobbema Agency (AB), 201
role in western Canadian settlement, 60, 74
women’s access to, 39–40, 58–59, 75–79, 96, 99
horses, 52, 108–9, 111, 127, 133–34. See also gifts
Houghton, Rev. R.C., Women of the Orient, 131
Howe, Inspector J., 259
Hudson, Susan, 205 Hudson’s Bay Company (HBC), 32–33, 136, 197, 199, 282. See also Connolly, William; Harriott, John Edward; Murray, Alexander Hunter; Thompson, David
Hugonnard, Fr. Joseph, 128, 238–40, 246–47
human development, 28
Hungry Wolf, Beverly, 111, 118–19, 121
Hutterites, 75
Hyde v. Hyde and Woodman See, 67, 86, 135
Île à la Crosse (SK), 122
illegitimacy, 10, 14, 26, 110, 114, 174
immigrants, immigration
citizenship status of, 24
imposition of Christian-monogamy model on, 284 (See also Latter Day Saints, Church of Jesus Christ of; Doukhobors
non-British, 99 (See also Asians; Ukrainians)
representations of, 44–45, 54, 90
Imperial Colonist, The, 40
changes to, 71, 273–74, 290, 95, 201, 210, 237, 294–95
compulsory education provisions of, 213
definition of “Indian” under, 168–70
determination of place of residence under, 261
interaction with Criminal Code, 276
interaction with provincial legislation, 291
prosecution of bigamy under, 276
provisions affecting women, 14, 140, 168, 170–71, 242–43, 292
Indian agents, 122–23, 172–73, 181–82, 269. See also Begg, Magnus; Markle, J.A.; Wilson, James; Wilson, R.N.
authority over Indian marriages, 148, 207–8, 238–39, 247–48, 260–61
marriage requirement of, 72–73, 155
relations with Aboriginal women, 38, 72, 150, 155
role in governance of reserves, 14, 38, 214–16, 206, 252, 258–59, 261
Indian Girls’ Home (Kainai Reserve, AB), 39
Indian Head (SK), 82
Indian Register, 295
Indian status, 12–13, 292, 293. See also Indian Act
industrialization, 30
informal marriage. See marriage, by consent
Ingram, Harry Miller and Hope Jessie Hall, 97
inheritance, 44, 134–38, 219–20, 243–45
Iraq, 11
Ireland, 40
Islam. See Muslims, Islam
ius gentium (law of the people), 137–38
Jack Head Reserve (MB), 254
Jameson, Anna Brownell, Winter Studies and Summer Rambles in Canada, 128–29
Jamison, Mary and Robert, 7
Jeater, Diana, 179
Jefferson, Thomas, 74
Jenkins, Fred (A.S. Fraser), 95
Jews, Judaism, 199
Johnson, E. Pauline, “A Red Girl’s Reasoning,” 164–65
Johnston, Alex, 141
Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, 68–70
Jubilee Marriage Scheme, 82
jumping the broom. See broomstick marriage
Justices of the Peace, 33, 67–68, 172–73, 269
Kainai (Bloods), 13–16, 70, 150, 156, 204, 243. See also Blackfoot; Charcoal; Hungry Wolf, Beverly; Red Crow, Chief
first Christian marriages, 165
marriage laws, 108, 142, 208–9, 220–21
reserve, 39, 43, 197, 205, 223, 261, 271
“Kanaka” (Pacific Islanders), 184
Kaulbach, Senator Henry, 93–94
Keewasens, 140
Kekanus case. See Rex v. Kekanus
Kenlis (SK), 54
Key to the Science of Theology, A, 49
Killed Herself, 222
Kingston, ON, 159
kinship. See family
kinship in Aboriginal society, 31, 104–10, 118–19, 127
effect of government policies on, 234, 288
heads of household, 120
terminology surrounding, 119–20
Kirby, Frances, 218
Klein, Alan, 132
Kobogum v. Jackson Iron Co. (U.S.), 182–83, 212
Labrie case. See Regina v. Labrie
Lac La Biche (AB), 55
Lacombe, Fr. Albert, 40
Ladies’ Book of Useful Information, 28
Laird, David, 223–24, 249–50, 254–57, 261, 267, 271
Lake St. Martin Reserve (MB), 254
Lambeth Conference (1888), 195
land and/or property. See also Dominion Lands Act; gifts; homesteading; reserves; scrip
communal ownership of, 50
inheritance of, 219–20 (See also Connolly v. Woolrich and Johnson et al.)
ownership of, 24–28, 65, 74–75, 185
payment for surrender of, 248
La Pierre, Peggy, 33
Laroque, Joseph, 135
“last best west,” 280
Latter Day Saints, Church of Jesus Christ of (LDS, Mormons), 5, 13, 41–50, 83–89
cessation of plural marriages, 42, 87
immigration to Canada, 43–44, 204–6
polygamy rates, 49
Lawford, Rev. C.H., 92
law of the people. See ius gentium
LDS. See Latter Day Saints, Church of Jesus Christ of
Leader, The. See Regina Leader
leap year, 82
Lebanese. See Syrians
Lebret, Fr, 141
Legal, Fr. Emile, 219
legislation, 2, 8, 33. See also British North America Act; Dominion Lands Act; Indian Act; Naturalization Act
marriage related, 54, 56, 67–68, 71, 83–87, 287, 288
provincial/territorial, 54, 67, 89–90, 142, 172, 174, 275–76, 287–88, 291
United States, 42, 86, 206, 210, 212–213
leisure and recreation, 82, 83
Lethbridge (AB), 21, 38–40, 140, 220
Lethbridge News, 22
Lewis, C.F., 82
Lewis, Oscar, 133
lex loci, 86
Liberal Party, 44. See also Blake, Edward; Cotler, Irwin
Lillooet, BC, 181
literature. See fiction
Little Bow River, 105
Livingstone, Stanley, 199
Loggie and Manley (Wetaskiwin law firm), 290–91
Lone Bull, 224
Lorne, Marquis of, 282
Lougheed, Isabella Hardisty, 281–82
Lougheed, James A., 79, 93, 281
love (romantic), 26, 27, 40, 50, 51. See also courtship; spouses, selection of
Lower Fort Garry (MB), 122
Lowie, Robert, 107
Ma’toki. See Women’s Society
Macdonald, John A., 87
divorce policy, 94
meetings with LDS leaders, 43–44, 84
as superintendent of Indian Affairs, 153, 156, 160, 166, 199–200
Mackie, John, 20
Maclean, John, The Wardens of the Plain, 130
Macleod. See Fort Macleod; Fort Whoop-Up
Macleod, R.C, 166
Macleod Gazette, 70, 93, 151, 152–54, 159, 217–18
Macoun, John, Manitoba and the Great North-West, 127–28
Maggie (wife of Nan-e-quis-a-ka), 139
Mail, The, 156
Mandelbaum, David, 114
Manderfield, Matilda and Peter, 96
Manitoba Act, 1870 201
Manton, Susan Ash, 159
Many Wives. See Card, Charles Ora
Maple Creek (SK), 73
mariage à la façon du pays. See Aboriginal marriage; marriage by consent
marital unity, doctrine of, 24
Marlatt, S.R., 254
marriage, 6, 22, 50, 67, 172. See also Aboriginal marriage; Canada, role of marriage in nation building; marriage ceremonies; polygamy; spouses; United States, role of marriage in nation building
advice on, 70, 79, 83–84, 132, 249, 252–53, 287
age at, 91
alternatives to, 38–42 (See also women, single)
in Australia, 185
by consent, 31–37, 65–67, 70 (See also Aboriginal marriage)
definition of in Euro-Canadian society, 2–5, 16–17, 125–26, 143–44, 155
encouragement of women toward, 79
under English common law, 22, 24
European customs, 31, 65–67 (See also United Kingdom)
ideal type, 8, 22, 280, 283 (See also monogamy, lifelong)
indissolubility of, 25 (See also divorce)
inter-faith, 92, 95–96, 248–49
medical requirements for, 287–88
intra-racial, 21–22, 31, 68–71, 80, 82
variety in customs concerning, 55
marriage, interracial, 6–8, 31, 54, 68–71, 281, 288. See also miscegenation
effect on Indian and Métis status, 169–70, 245
government policy on, 71–73, 184–85, 245 (See also schools, arranged marriages at)
marriage ceremonies, 32–35, 50, 66–68, 90 218. See also bride purchase; wife exchange
Aboriginal, 5, 107–9, 115–17, 126, 140, 155, 160–61, 268–69, 272–73 (See also gifts)
African, 186
changes in wording of services, 27
in second marriages, 109
marriage contracts, 32–33, 35, 66–67
“marriage fever,” 22
marriage licenses and certificates, 54–55, 67–68, 82, 165, 291. See also health certificates
African, 179
marriage records, 267
Marsden, Chief Samuel, 254
Marshall, John, 136
Masseuas (husband of Christy Bell Beardy), 203
matchmaking, 234 (See also spouses)
Matheson, Rev. E., 165
Matthias, Franklin, 142
Maxidiwiac, 119
McCarty, Maude (Mrs. Mercer), 88
McClung, Nellie, 53
McDonald, Allan, 208
McDougall, John, “The Red Men of Canada’s West Yesterday and Today,” 130–31
McFarland, Marcella Sheran, 21, 141
McHarg, Mr. (lawyer), 263
McKay, Eva, 125
McKay, Rev. Hugh, 248
McKenna, J., 225–26, 247, 249, 268–69
McKenzie, E. (missionary), 250–51
McKenzie, M., 222
McLean, J.D., 171, 184–85, 220, 257–58, 270
McLeay, Misses, 39
Meadows, Angelique, 138
medical books, 83
Medicine Pipe Stem, 217
Mellam, John, 128
Mennonites, 75
Methodists, Methodism, 27, 53, 72, 91, 257–58, 290. See also Maclean, John; Semmens, John; Woodsworth, James S.; Young, E.R.
Métis, 5–6, 8, 202–3. See also Beaulieu, François; Galbreath, John Jackson “Jack”; Grant, John F. and Quarra; North-West resistance; Paget, Amelia McLean
population, 37
representations of, 50, 68–70, 152 scientific “classification” of, 68–69 social segregation of, 11
Mexico, 88
Michaud, Pauline, 138
midwives, 39
Milk River (AB), 41
minipokas, 108
miscegenation, 6, 50, 70, 152, 157 (See also marriage, interracial)
missionaries. See Christians, Christianity; Latter Day Saints, Church of Jesus Christ of
monogamy (lifelong), 12–16, 26–31, 33, 35, 59, 90, 115, 137–38, 161–62, 223
and Canadian identity (See Canada, role of marriage in nation building)
challenges to, 8–9, 29–37, 53–56, 59, 98–100, 176, 287
colonial discourse on, 5–6, 28
historical development of, 3
and homesteading policy, 78
imposition of in Western Canada, 28, 83, 92, 170–71, 148, 161–67, 235–42, 260–61, 284, 287–92
monogamy (serial), 115, 235. See also bigamy
Montana, 37, 40–41, 58, 120, 149
Moore, Rev. T. Albert, 184
Moose Jaw Times, 40
Moose Mountain (AB), 242, 246, 260, 272
morality, moral reform, 3, 9, 16, 184, 272–73
Morgan, Henry Lewis, 28
Mormon Bible. See Book of Mormon
Mormons. See Latter Day Saints, Church of Jesus Christ of
Mountain Chief, 205
Mountain Horse, Joe, 237
Murphy, Emily, Janey Canuck in the West, 52
Murray, Alexander Hunter, 122
Muscowpetung Reserve (SK), 239
Nakoda. See Assiniboine
names (Aboriginal), 259
Nan-e-quis-a-ka, 139
Napi. See Old Man
National Council of Women of Canada, 272–73
National Women’s Suffrage (U.S.), 48
Naturalization Act (1919), 96
natural selection, 45
Newcombe, E.L., 76, 95, 209, 220, 244–45, 270
Newfoundland, 33
news media, 49, 54, 87, 89, 93
anti-polygamy, 46, 49, 84, 120, 150–54, 200–201, 212, 217–19
debate on married NWMP officers in, 73–74
Métis ownership of, 37
promotion of intra-racial marriage in, 21, 22, 70, 82, 280–82, 149
promotion of lifelong monogamy model of marriage in, 2, 6, 16–17, 26, 56–57, 59
representations of Aboriginal people in, 68, 126, 149, 152–56, 159–60
representations of Doukhobors in, 51
representations of Quakers in, 55
response to CPR Jubilee Marriage Scheme, 82
sensationalism in, 150–51, 159, 272–73
use as evidence of polygamy, 88
Nicolls, Rev. W., 245
nita-yim. See co-husbands
North West Company (NWC), 122. See also Laroque, Joseph
North-West Mounted Police (NWMP), 21, 31, 38, 41, 95, 149. See also Begin, J.V.; Grier, D.J.; Herchmer, Lawrence; Steele, Col. S. B.; Wilde, Sergeant W.B.
Aboriginal resistance to, 216
fictional accounts of, 20
intervention in Aboriginal marriages, 207, 238–39, 259
marriage of members, 40–41, 73–74
polygamy-related surveillance, 87–88, 90–91
role in enforcement of Indian Act, 237
service as Justices of the Peace, 68, 172
North-West Rebellion Script Commissions, 152
North-West resistance, 11, 12, 151, 188, 200
North-West Territories (NWT), 21, 139, 141. See also Marriage Act; Ordinance Respecting Marriage
Norton, Moses, 32
Norway House (MB), 271
novels. See fiction
nuclear family, 2, 29–30, 75, 105
oaths of allegiance, 52
Oblates (Missionary Oblates of Mary Immaculate), 95, 180–81
Office of Indian Affairs (U.S.), 184
Old Man (Napi), 106
Old Man River, 140
Oliver, Frank, 78, 80, 163, 257, 273–74
Onion Lake (SK), 165
oral traditions, 105–6, 111, 113–14
orders-in-council
1887 Canadian, 12, 16, 155, 160, 188, 257, 272, 293
African, 179
Ordinance Respecting Marriage (1878, NWT), 67, 71, 89–90, 142, 172
Oregon, 184
orphanages, 141
Ostrander, J.P.B., 292
Oxford House (MB), 207
Pacific Islanders (“Kanaka”), 184
pacifism, 52
Paget, Amelia McLean, The People of the Plains, 129
Parliament (acts of), 25
Parts His Hair, 109
Penzance, Lord. See Wilde, Sir James O.
Perkin, Joan, 65
Perry, Adele, 4
personhood (legal definition), 168
petitions, 50, 72, 91, 173, 180–81, 182
Petrik, Paula, 58
Physical Life of Woman: Advice to the Maiden, Wife and Mother, The, 70, 83
Piapot, Chief, 165
Piapot Reserve (SK), 261
Picturesque Cardston and Environments, 88
Piikani (Peigan), 126, 133, 256–57. See also Awatoyakew; Blackfoot; Tailfeathers, Molly; Three Calf
oral traditions, 105
Pine Creek (AB), 7
Pine Ridge Agency, SD, 212
Plains Cree. See Cree
plural marriage. See polygamy
polyandry, 176. See also co-husbands
polygamy
in Aboriginal society, 5, 10, 28, 42, 115–22, 129–31, 199–203, 216–17 (See also Aboriginal marriage)
in African society, 178, 187, 204
attitude of missionaries toward, 129–34, 194–99, 201, 214–16, 219, 227
government efforts to combat, 8, 83–89, 138–39, 203–8, 223–24, 227–29
government’s failure to combat, 13–16, 88, 166, 254–57, 262–67, 276–77
legal decisions concerning, 13–14, 42, 135–37, 210–13, 214–29
no word for in Aboriginal languages, 115
penalty for, 86
persistence of, 166, 199–201, 266–67, 275
positive representations of, 48–50, 89, 129, 199
prevalence of, 32, 37, 121–22, 129–32, 198, 201, 207–8, 223
social benefits of, 117–18, 121, 132–133, 204
polygyny. See polygamy
population. See censuses and enumerations
pornography. See nudity
Power, Augustus, 162
prairie turnips, 111
pregnancy (extramarital). See illegitimacy
Presbyterian Record, 27
Presbyterians. See McKay, Hugh; McKenzie, E.; Shearer, Rev. John G.
Privy Council, 149, 156–57, 160–62, 167
prostitutes, prostitution, 38–39, 49, 68, 180, 273
social definition of, 9, 10, 53–54, 153
Protestants, Protestantism, 92, 95–96. See also Christians, Christianity
provinces (jurisdiction), 290, 293–94
Pruden, Isabella, 246
Pruden, John (daughter of), 135
Qu’Appelle Industrial School, 240. See also Hugonnard, Fr. Joseph
Quakers (Society of Friends), 8, 54–55, 89–90, 276
Quebec, 37, 104, 134, 138, 174, 210–11, 275
rape. See sexual assault
rape (statutory). See age of consent
Rapid City Daily Journal, The, 212
Rat River. See Rivière-aux-Rats
Reader, Joseph, 173
reconciliation (marital), 113
Red Crow, Chief, 70, 107–8, 110–12, 115, 219, 221
Red Crow, Frank, 220
Red River Settlement (MB), 36–37, 68, 198, 282
Reed, Hayter, 71–72, 173, 206–11, 237, 238
Regina (SK), 73–74, 74, 97, 128
Regina Industrial School, 239, 249–50, 252
Regina Leader Post, 68
Regina v. Nan-e-quis-a-ka, 139–40, 163, 213, 222, 265
registrar of deeds, 68
religion, 138–39. See also Christians, Christianity; Jews, Judaism; Latter Day Saints, Church of Jesus Christ of; Muslims, Islam; oral traditions; Quakers; Sun Dances
in Aboriginal society, 112
Doukhobor beliefs concerning, 50
effect on annuity eligibility, 173
in England, 66
of Euro-Canadian men, 70–71, 87
government policy on, 162–63, 242–43, 257–58, 292
intra-familial, 118
Mormon beliefs concerning, 41–42
relation to polygamy, 29, 85, 96–97, 119
representations of, 29, 57, 254
status of second wives, 222
United States policy on, 56
Renton, Jane, 32
repudiation (law of). See divorce by consent
reserves, First Nations, 261. See also Blackfoot; Cree, Plains Cree; File Hills Colony; Kainai; Piikani; Siksika)
confinement to, 159–60, 180–81, 238
DIA authority over, 14, 151, 165–66, 201, 214–16, 235, 239–40, 254–55, 261, 290–91 (See also Department of Indian Affairs, Indian agents)
pass system, 68, 152–53, 181–82
relocation to the north, 11, 152
self-management of, 165
Revenge Walker, 70
Ridley, Bishop William, 226
Riel, Louis, 157. See also North-West resistance
Riou, Fr. J., 225
Rolfe, Robert Monsey. See Cranworth, Lord
Rollason, Heather, 166
Roman Catholic Church. See Catholics, Catholicism
Roper, Edward, 123
Rosser (MB), 81
Rouleau, Judge C., 222
Rowland, W.P., 92
Royal Commissions, 53
Royal Proclamation (1763), 136
Running Deer, 130
Running Eagle, 124
Rupert’s Land Industrial School, 235
Russian Orthodox Church, 50
Russians. See Doukhobors
Sadie Hawkins Day, 82
St. Albert (AB). See Grandin, Bishop Vital
St. Cyprian’s mission (Piikani Reserve, AB), 214
St. John’s mission (Siksika Reserve, AB), 201, 216
St. Joseph’s Industrial School, 235–37
St. Paul des Métis (AB), 95
St. Paul’s School, Blood Reserve (AB), 242
St. Peter’s Reserve (MB), 235
St. Victor (SK), 96
Salt Lake Herald, 88
same-sex marriage, 2, 5, 31, 122, 124–25
Sarcee. See Tsuu T’ina
Saskatchewan, 8, 39, 198, 287, 291–92
Saulteaux, 125, 268. See also Ojibway
Saunders, Anne, 39
Saunders, Douglas, 138
arranged marriages at, 235–42, 247, 250
classification of students, 240
compulsory attendance at, 216–17, 237
day schools, 214
deaths of students at, 213–14, 216
forced committal to, 210
use to enforce monogamy policy, 213–14, 241, 260
Scollen, Fr. Constantine, 21, 141
Scott, Duncan Campbell, 240, 257
Scottish people, Scotland, 37
Scraping Hide, 216
scrip (Métis), 142, 152, 169–170, 202–3
seduction, laws related to, 181, 290
segregation, 11–12, 68, 167, 281–82. See also reserves, First Nations, confinement to
self-government (doctrine), 182–84
self-marriage. See marriage, by consent
semi-widows. See separation, surrender of plural wives
Senate, Canadian, 25, 29, 93–94
separation (marital), 76–77, 294
government policy toward, 43–44, 196, 211–12, 235, 238–39, 260–61, 270
surrender of plural wives, 195–99, 201, 209–11, 219, 223–27, 254–55
sexual assault (“outrage”), 159, 177
sexual relations
age of commencement of, 260
extramarital, 28, 38, 55–56, 114, 121
men’s freedom in, 110
interracial, 181, 289 (See also marriage, interracial; miscegenation)
sexually transmitted disease. See venereal disease
sex work. See prostitutes, prostitution
Shearer, Rev. John G., 273
Sheran, Marcella. See McFarland, Marcella Sheran
Sheran, Nicholas (lawsuit involving family), 140–42, 249
Short, James, 14, 225, 226, 227
Siberians, Siberia, 27
Siksika, 109, 118, 120. See also Blackfoot
first Christian marriage, 165
prevalence of polygamy among, 208, 223–24
reserve, 165, 201, 208, 214–17
Simpson, George, 33
Sinclair, R.V., 291
Singing Before, 219
Skynner, Francis, 216
Sleeping Woman, 217
smallpox, 119
Smart, James, 220
Smith, Charles, 69
Smith, Donald (Lord Strathcona), 33, 35, 282
Smith, Isabella (Bella) Hardisty (Lady Strathcona), 33–35, 282
Smith, Joseph, 45
Smith, Margaret Charlotte, 33
Smith, Mary Anne, 69
socialism, 52
social reform, 16
society (Aboriginal). See Aboriginal marriage; kinship in Aboriginal society
society (Euro-Canadian). See Euro-Canadian men; Euro-Canadian women; Canada, role of marriage in nation building
Society of Friends. See Quakers
Sojntula Colony (“Harmony Experiment”), BC, 56
Sons of Freedom (Doukhobors), 52
Southesk, Earl of, 199
spouses (selection of), 32
in Aboriginal society, 113–15, 119–20, 124–27, 268–69
in Euro-Canadian society, 29, 82, 110
at residential and industrial schools, 235–42, 247, 250
Star Blanket, Chief, 220
Stenhouse, Anthony Maitland, 45–46, 85
Stirling, Justice, 187
Stocken, Canon H.W. Gibbon, 198
Stony Mountain Penitentiary (MB), 41
Strathcona, Lord. See Smith, Donald
Strzelewski, Count, 70
Swainson, Rev. F., 165
Sweden, 96
Swift Current (SK), 55
Switzer, B., 98
Syrians, 55
Tanner, John, 125
taxes. See bachelor tax; head tax
Taylor, Rev. I.J., 253
Telegraph (St. John, NB), 82
The Pas Band, 173
Therien, Fr. J.A., 95
Thompson, David, 107, 112, 117–18, 122, 128
Thompson, John, 12, 86, 94, 157–59
Thunder Hill Colony (Doukhobor), 51
Tims, Rev. J.W., 201, 204, 216–17, 218
Tims, Violet Wood, 218
Toronto World, 89
treaties, 13, 165, 208–9, 246, 292–93
Treaty 4 area, 220. See also Piapot, Chief
Treaty 7 area, 13, 14, 205, 206, 223. See also Blackfoot
Trivett, Samuel, 150–51, 153–54, 197
Tsuu T’ina, 198, 227. See also Blackfoot
tuberculosis, 214, 216, 245, 288
Tupper, Charles, 156
Turner, Charlet, 32
Turtle Mountain (ND), 272
United Church of Canada, 241, 259
United Farmers of Alberta (UFA), 40
United States, 6, 56–58, 166–167, 212
Canadian representations of, 4, 56–57, 86, 284
efforts to eradicate polygamy, 40–42, 201, 205–6, 211–12
extradition from, 40
government policies regarding Aboriginal people, 28, 161, 182–83, 233
homesteading policy, 78
interracial marriage in, 184
legal decisions related to marriage, 142–43, 149, 183–84, 211–12
marriage by consent in, 65, 90
representations of Canada in, 232
role of marriage in nation building, 3–4
women’s rights in, 48, 78, 184
United States Constitution, 183
United States v. Quiver, 183–84
Utah, 42, 49. See also Latter Day Saints, Church of Jesus Christ of
Vancouver, BC, 182
Vankoughnet, Lawrence, 153, 155–56
Varcoe, F.P., 294
vegetarianism, 52
venereal disease, 38, 167, 288
Venn, Henry, 195
Veregin, Peter, 52
veterans’ benefits, 294
Vincent, Thomas, 32
virginity, 110
vital statistics, registration of, 90, 267
voting. See enfranchisement
Wabamun (AB), 257
Wabasca (AB), 172
Waite, P.B., 157
Wales, 67
Walker, Alfred Percy and Emily Herald, 93
Walkowitz, Judith R., 150, 151
wardship under Indian Act, 16, 150, 275
warfare, 165
Wat Shee, 54
Western Standard Illustrated Weekly, 280, 281–82
Wetmore, Justice Edward L., 139–40, 163, 168
White Buffalo Robe, 108
Whitehorse, YK, 290
White-Tailed Deer Woman. See Awatoyakew
wife exchange, 114. See also bride purchase
Wilde, Sir James O. (Lord Penzance), 4–5, 67
Williams, A.S., 289
Williams, Thomas, 48
Williams, Zina Young. See Card, Zina Young
Wilson, James, 209, 219, 222–23
Wilson, Kathleen, 59
Wilson, R.N., 142, 219, 243–45, 271
Wing Sang Company (Vancouver, BC), 54
Wolfart, H.C., 114
Woman Who Married the Morning Star, 111
Woman’s Exponent, 46
Woman, Her Character, Culture and Calling, 132
women. See Aboriginal women; Euro-Canadian women
women’s associations, 40, 91–92, 112–13, 272–73, 280–81
Women’s Christian Temperance Union, 91
Women’s Society (Ma’toki, Kainai), 112–13
Wong Wai, 54
Wood, C.E.D., 96
Worcester v. Georgia (U.S.), 136
World War I, 98
World War II, 294
Wright, Corporal T.B., 74
Yarwood, Miss, 92
Yip Sang, 54
York Factory. See Budge, William
Yorkton (SK), 91
Young, Brigham, 41, 46–48. See also Card, Zina Young
Young, E.R.
Yukon, 122