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table of contents
Index
bold numbers indicate illustrations
A
- Abbott, Frederick, 54
- Aborigines Protection Society (APS), 123–124
- Adrienne, Chief, 150
- advocacy groups, 171–172
- Africa, 124
- agriculture: as civilizing influence, 218
- Ahern, P. K., 84
- Alberta, Government of, 200
- Alberta Provincial Police, 58
- alcoholism, 121, 176, 182
- Alfred, Taiaiake, 3, 14, 25, 124
- Allied Tribes: and 1927 Special Joint
- Arblaster, Anthony, 13
- Ash, John, 144
- assimilation, 45, 49–50, 95–96, 142
- August, Minnie, 74
B
- Baker, James, 82
- Balf, Mary, 119
- Basil, Dick, 108
- Bazile, Chief, 122, 123
- BCPP (British Columbia Provincial Police): conflict with NWMP, 83
- Bearspaw band, 32
- Belyea, Barbara, 135
- Bentham, Jeremy, 4–5
- Bigstony, Jonas, 198
- Black Plume, Chief, 125
- Blackfoot: government attempt to split up, 203–204
- Blake, Edward, 113
- Blake, Samuel H., 1
- Blenkinsop, George, 44
- Borden, Robert, 179, 188
- Bostock, Hewitt, 190
- Brealey, Kenneth, 163
- Bridgman, A., 173, 174
- British Columbia: becomes province of Canada, 140–141, 148
- British Columbia, Government of: and BCTC, 25
- conflict with Canada on First Nations’ policy, 141–143, 144, 148–149, 161, 166, 171, 233
- early relations with First Nations, 134, 138–143, 148–149
- effect of liberalism on, 232
- and exclusionary liberalism, 148–149, 158–159
- importance of relationship with federal government, 46–47, 159, 166
- and Joint Reserve Commission, 144–145
- in Long Lake dispute, 174–175
- and McKenna-McBride Commission, 179–188, 189–190
- and NWMP, 82–83
- reaction to First Nations’ resistance, 144, 171
- reducing size of reserves, 163–166
- reserve land reversion, 165, 179
- restrictions on movement of First Nations, 77
- view of Aboriginal title, 46–47, 133, 142–143, 148, 149, 171, 172
- view of consent, 138–139, 179, 189
- British Columbia Provincial Police. see BCPP (British Columbia Provincial Police)
- British Columbia Treaty Commission (BCTC), 25
- Brown, J.R., 126, 176
- Buckleypeach, Dominic, 181
- buffalo, 31, 33, 35, 40
- Bullhead, Chief, 105, 202, 203
- Burnett, Inspector, 79
- business, 75, 76, 77, 80–81, 99–103. see also capitalism
- Butcher, Chief, 212
C
- Cail, Robert, 137
- Calgary, City of, 203
- Canada, Government of (see also Department of Indian Affairs) (DIA): assimilation policy, 45
- buys land, 145, 203
- conflict with BC on reserve policy, 141–143, 144, 148–149, 161, 166, 171, 233
- cutbacks in expenses, 103, 164
- and First Nations’ land use, 41
- and First Nations’ resistance, 143–144, 170–171
- importance of relationship with BC, 46–47, 159, 166
- informed by British experience, 44–45
- and Joint Reserve Commission, 144–145
- Kainai appeal to, 209
- and land reversion in BC, 165, 179
- and McKenna-McBride Commission, 179–188, 189–190
- and Okanagan, 42
- and pass system, 70
- and reduction of Indian reserves in BC, 163–164, 166
- removal of consent by, 189, 194, 208
- and Treaty 7, 47–48, 98, 131– 132, 146–147, 152–156
- use of coercion by, 132–133, 173, 227
- view of Aboriginal title, 136–137, 144–145, 158–159, 161
- view of consent, 133, 137, 164, 178, 221
- Canadian Pacific Railway (CPR), 11, 213–214
- Capilano, Joe, 170
- capitalism: and Anglo-Canadian morality, 110–113
- and Canada changing rules to protect, 159
- as component of liberalism, 11–12
- details of Treaty 7 which support, 157–158
- Indian agents duties for, 108, 109
- and Joint Reserve Commission, 144–145
- and Kootenay Plains reserve, 199 and McKenna-McBride Commission, 185
- police defense of, 56
- supported by BC government, 166
- supported by surveillance, 7, 131
- and Tsuu T’ina reserve, 201, 202
- and use of reserves, 137–138, 140, 141
- Cardinal, Harold, 47
- Carter, Sarah, 225
- census taking, 117, 178
- Certeau, Michel de, 136
- Chase, Whitfield, 151, 152
- Chelouis, Chief, 140
- Chewile, Chief, 177
- Chiefs: deposing of, 102–103, 125–126, 174, 176, 178;
- Chiefs Bear’s Paw, 155
- Chilheetsa, Johnny, 176, 184, 190
- Chiniquay, John, 155, 198
- Chiniquay band, 32
- Christianization, 45, 55, 169
- Christie, James H.: as Indian advocate, 47, 126, 172–173
- civilizing movement: and agriculture, 218
- as BC policy, 139, 142
- of British, 45
- of DIA, 99, 106
- by enforcing Anglo-Canadian morality, 110–113
- by enforcing housing and sanitation, 112–114
- and gradations of Indianness, 19–20, 186–187
- and hiring Indian Police, 87
- and missionaries, 55, 167
- and selecting First Nations’ leaders, 123–124
- and surveillance, 51–52
- and Tsuu T’ina, 201
- Clark, J.W., 190, 192
- Clemah, Edward, 182
- colonialism (see also
imperialism): author’s methodology for, 24–25
- and BC’s First Nations’ policy, 139–140
- and DIA’s control of First Nations’ leaders, 123–127
- and effect on understanding First Nations, 18–21, 24
- explanation of process, 7–8; internal, 10
- as part of liberal rule, 233–234, 235–236
- and religion, 169 and reserves, 8–9
- supported by surveillance, 17–18, 27
- of Treaty 7, 147, 156
- in Western Canada, 8–10
- Conaty, Gerald, 11, 35
- Conference of Friends of the Indians of British Columbia, 171
- consent: BC’s view of, 138–139, 179, 189
- Cooper, Frederick, 124
- Cox, William, 140
- CPR (Canadian Pacific Railway), 11, 213–214
- Cree, 31, 147
- Crop Eared Wolf, 125–126, 204, 206
- Crow Shield, Chief, 105
- Crowfoot, Chief, 153, 154–155, 214
- Cummiskey, T. J., 111, 126, 175, 176, 178
- Cuthbert, A. Ross, 68
D
- Dakota, 32
- Daly, Thomas M., 70, 76, 78
- Darling, H.C., 45
- David, Basil, 170
- De Balinhard, W., 64
- Deane, R.B., 65
- Dempsey, Hugh, 153, 157, 220
- Dene, 31
- Dennison, H.T., 120, 227
- Denny, C.E., 213
- Department of Indian Affairs (DIA): aid to war veterans, 228–230
- annual reports of, 1, 115–117, 127
- conflict with NWMP, 77–79, 211, 212
- and consent, 221
- defends McKenna-McBride Commission, 189–192
- employment of First Nations, 85–86, 87, 123
- employment of J. McDougall, 54, 55, 167–169, 199, 202, 204–205
- failure to help First Nations, 94–96, 127–129
- and farm instructors, 106–107
- Greater Production scheme, 224–226
- and imposed system of politics, 123–126
- and Kainai resistance, 203–210
- Long Lake sale and surrender, 173–178
- and missionaries, 52–54, 55, 167–169
- and Nakoda, 198–200
- number and cost of employees, 96–99, 103, 106, 120–121
- pass system, 60, 61–68
- permit system, 99–103
- and Piikani resistance, 210–213
- quality of information gathered, 93–96
- reserve policy, 49–50, 136, 137
- and restriction of movement in BC, 74–77
- sanitation scheme, 112, 113–114
- selecting supportive First Nations’ Chiefs, 123–127
- and Siksika surrender, 213–219
- surveillance of First Nations, 16–18, 52, 93–94, 96
- and Treaty 7, 147
- and Tsuu T’ina surrender, 201–203
- use of coercion to reduce reserves, 206–209
- withholding food rations, 69, 79–80, 105, 111, 122–123
- works with BCPP, 56–57
- works with NWMP, 59–60, 68–73, 81, 125–126, 205
- worry about outside agitation, 172–173, 189, 201, 205, 208
- Dewdney, Edgar: and agent Lucas, 121
- DIA. see Department of Indian Affairs (DIA)
- Dilworth, W.J., 206, 207–208, 209
- Dingman, A.W., 202
- disease, 42, 43–44
- Ditchburn, W. E., 95, 108, 119–120, 172, 189, 190–191, 192
- Dorian, A.A., 59
- Douglas, James, 94–95, 138, 139–140
- Dreyfus, Hubert, 3
- Duff, Wilson, 169
- Duncan, William, 52
- Dunsmuir, James, 165
- Dyck, Noel, 8
E
- education, 54, 168
- electoral politics, 124–125
- employment: of First Nations by DIA, 85–86, 87, 123
- Evans, James, 183
- exclusionary liberalism: comparison of BC and Canadian approach to, 148–149, 158–159
F
- fish/fishing, 38–40, 44, 57, 101, 109, 166, 181, 190
- Fleetham, T. J., 117, 199, 203
- food sources: caloric intake, 40
- Forget, A.E., 103, 121
- Foster, Hamar, 144
- Foucault, Michel, 3–7
- Fraser River fishery strikes, 57
- Frideres, James, 10
- Friends of the Indians in British Columbia, 169
- Fulton, F.J., 183
- fundraising ban, 194, 195
- Fyffe, A.M., 211, 212
G
- gender equality, 34. see also women
- George, Alexander, 229
- George, Baptiste, 181
- George, Mary, 229
- gold mining, 138
- Goldfrank, Esther, 34
- Good, Charles, 143
- Gooderham, George, 104, 105, 108, 219
- Gooderham, J.H., 116, 215, 216, 217, 218
- Goodstoney, Jacob, 155
- The Gradual Civilization Act, 45
- The Gradual Enfranchisement Act, 45–46
- Graham, W. M.: on failure of DIA, 129
- Greater Production Scheme, 208–209, 218–219, 224–226
- Grandidier, C.J., 143
- Grasse, P.L., 53–54
- Great Britain, 44–45
- guns, 34–35, 78–79
H
- Harper, J.M., 182
- Harris, Douglas, 101
- on Harris, Isaac: as Indian policeman, 85, 107
- and work for McKenna-McBride Commission, 181, 184, 186–187
- Haynes, W.R., 213
- health care, 168
- Henderson, James Youngblood, 235
- Herchmer, W.M., 54–55, 65, 68–69, 87–88
- Higginson, T.S., 102
- Hildebrandt, Walter, 81–82
- Holbrook, Henry, 141
- Holt, Thomas, 11–12
- horses, 34–35, 38
- housing, 112, 113–114
- Howe, Joseph, 81, 88
- Hudson’s Bay Company, 138, 145
- Hungry Wolf, Beverly, 33–34
- hunting rights, 56–57, 70
- Hussey, Frederick, 84
I
- imperialism (see also colonialism): implied in Treaty 7, 158
- Indian Act: of 1876, 46, 47
- Indian agents (see also Department of Indian Affairs) (DIA): and annual reports, 115–117
- Indian Lands Settlement Act (BC), 189, 191
- Indian police, 85–89
- Indian Reserve Commission, 43–44, 48
- Indian Rights Association, 170
- intemperance, charges of, 125–126, 174, 176
- Irvine, A.G., 61–63, 106, 213–214
- Irwin, Archibald: as DIA agent, 97, 107, 117–118
J
- Jarvis, E.W., 70
- Johnson, William, 44
- Joint Reserve Commission, 144–145, 149–152, 161–162
- Jones, Dorothy, 156
- Jones, R., 90
- Judicial Committee of the Privy Council (JCPC), 171, 188, 192, 194
K
- Kainai: and agriculture, 107
- and disease, 43
- Blood, 65–66, 80, 87, election of Chiefs, 125–126
- and Greater Production scheme, 225–226
- and pass system, 65, 66
- population, 96
- relations with DIA, 94, 96
- relations with NWMP, 78, 79–80
- and reserve policy, 55
- resistance to reserve reduction, 203–210
- and Treaty 7, 153, 156, 157, 204
- war veterans, 230
- and women, 33–34
- Karr, Clarence, 139
- Kelly, Peter, 188, 192, 193
- Kennedy, Dan, 32
- Kennedy, John, 173, 174–175, 176, 177, 178
- Kilbourn, F.A., 218
- King, W.L.M., 192, 209
- kinship networks, 39, 41
- Klein, Alan, 34–35 Kootenay Plains reserve, 198–200
- Ktunaxa, 38, 82
- Kwakwaka’wakw, 76
L
- Laird, David: and consent, 221
- Lakota, 146
- land (see also reserves): cultural view of, 135–136, 185
- Land Amendment Act (BC), 134
- Larner, John, 32, 155, 198
- Larue, Elie, 190
- Laurier, Wilfrid, 41, 170–171, 188
- Leacock, Stephen, 21–22 League of Indians in Canada, 200
- Left Hand, Chief, 126
- Lenihan, James, 97, 149
- Levern, Jean-Louis, 113, 217
- Lewis, Oscar, 34
- liberalism (see also exclusionary liberalism): and ability to mask primary objectives, 132–133
- Linley, Tom, 176
- Little Bear, Leroy, 32
- Logan, Baptiste, 85, 126, 174, 176
- logging, 100–101, 102, 105
- Long Lake sale and surrender, 173–178
- Looy, A.J., 104
- Louie, Casto, 150, 176, 178
- Louie, Celia, 74
- Lucas, Samuel, 53, 68, 69, 105, 113, 121
- Lutz, John, 17
- Lytton, E.B., 139
M
- Macdonald, John A.: and DIA in BC, 97, 162
- Macdonald, K.C., 118, 170
- Macdowall, D.A., 180, 183–184
- Maclean, John, 155, 227, 228
- Macleod, J.F., 90, 146, 153
- Macleod, Norman, 106
- Macpherson, D. G., 151
- Macpherson, Inspector, 81
- Malcolm’s Western Canneries, 214
- Mallon, Florencia, 6–7
- Manuel, George, 25, 77
- Many Dust, Chief, 126
- Many Wounds, 105
- Mara, John A., 149
- Markle, J.A.: influence of, 220
- Martin-Maguire, Peggy, 137, 173, 220, 221
- Marxism, 2–3
- McBride, Richard, 171, 179. see also McKenna-McBride Commission
- McBryan, Alexander, 151
- McCord, W.C., 105
- McDougall, George, 91, 155
- McDougall, John: on failure of DIA, 127
- McGibbon, Inspector, 113
- McGill, Harold, 96
- McIllree, J.H., 65, 70
- McKay, Ian, 134
- McKay, J.W., 111–112
- McKenna, J.A.J., 112, 178, 179, 180, 201
- McKenna-McBride Commission, 179–192, 194
- McKinlay, Commissioner, 149, 152
- McLean, George, 228–229
- McLean, J.D., 101, 212
- McLeod, Colin, 205, 211, 212
- McNeill, A.J., 202
- Means, Russell, 2
- media: coverage of First Nations’ resistance, 170
- medicine bundles, 35
- Megraw, A., 178, 227, 228–229
- Mehta, Uday, 12
- Meighan, Arthur, 190, 209, 224, 225, 226–227, 231
- Métis, 147
- Michel, Pierre, 126, 174, 176
- Middleton, Frederick, 63
- Mill, John Stuart, 11–12
- Miner, Bill, 177
- mineral rights, 166, 200, 202, 206, 214
- missionaries: cooperation with authorities, 54–55, 155, 167–169, 213
- Moberly, Walter, 140
- Moody, R.C., 139
- Moral and Social Reform Council of Canada, 171 Mormons, 55
- Morris, Alexander, 49, 81, 147
- Mountain Horse, Albert, 230
- Mountain Horse, Joe, 230
- Mountain Horse, Mike, 94, 230
- Mountain Horse, Sikski, 230
- Murdoch, George, 83–84
N
- Nakoda: and DIA agents, 96
- Nakota, 31–32
- Narcisse, Chief, 181
- Nash, Henry, 122–123
- nation building, 21–22
- National Policy, 59
- Neale, Superintendent, 66, 90, 153
- Nevitt, R.B., 81
- Newcombe, E.L., 193
- Newnham, J.A., 226
- Neylan, Susan, 169
- Nez Percé, 146
- Nisga’a, 170, 188
- Nisquamlth, Chief, 140, 150
- Nk’ Mip, 181
- Nkamaplix Okanagan, 173–178
- Nlha7kápmx, 41, 162, 170
- North American Indian Brotherhood, 195
- North Axe, 66
- North Peigans, 66
- North West Rebellion, 63–64, 80–81
- NWMP (North West Mounted Police): in Alberta, 57
- and Blackfoot, 80, 84
- call for bigger force, 213–214
- and churches, 54–55
- coercion with DIA on pass system, 68–73
- conflict with DIA, 77–79, 211, 212
- and hiring Indian Police, 81, 85–89
- informal imperialism of, 81–82
- and Kainai, 78, 79–80; mandate, 59
- mythic status of, 58
- number of men in, 83–84
- origins of, 58–59
- and pass system, 61–62, 63, 64, 65–66
- and permit system, 101
- support of business, 56, 80–81
- surveillance by, 56, 59–60, 66
- surveillance of, 89–90
- and Treaty 7, 59, 81, 146–147, 153–155
- works with DIA, 59–60, 81, 125–126, 205
O
- Okanagan: and disease, 43–44
- economy of, 37–39, 41
- election of Chiefs, 126
- history before European contact, 36, 37
- and Indian Police, 85
- and Long Lake sale and surrender, 173–178
- at McKenna-McBride Commission, 182, 185, 186
- political leadership, 41–42
- reduction of reserves, 167, 186
- relations with DIA, 107, 118
- resistance to reserve policy, 146, 149–150, 170, 173, 188
- war service of, 223
- Old Moon, Chief, 126
- Oliver, Frank: and Kainai, 204
- O’Meara, Arthur E.: and 1927 Special Joint Committee hearings, 94, 193, 195
- Only Kill, 90
- O’Reilly, Peter, 162–164
P
- Paget, F.H., 106–107
- panopticon (see also surveillance): Bentham’s theory of, 4–7
- pass system: combined DIA/NWMP
- paternalism (see also racism): and Anglo-Canadian morality, 111
- Patrick, A.P., 198
- Patullo, Duff, 189
- Paull, Andrew, 193
- Pedley, Frank: conflict with NWMP, 79–80
- on First Nations’ culture, 11
- permit system, 99–103
- Perrin, Bishop, 169
- Perry, A. Bowen, 71, 78
- Pidcock, R.H., 75, 76
- Piegan Frank, 89
- Pierre, Sam, 182
- Pierrish, Francois, 181
- Piikani: and DIA agents, 96, 122–123
- Pinkerton’s Detective Agency, 84, 172
- Pizzorno, Alessandro, 236
- plants, 33, 40–41
- Pocklington, William, 64, 65, 66, 67, 105, 122, 210
- potatoes, 40, 41
- Powell, Israel Wood: and G. M. Sproat, 162
- Powers, J.W., 85
- Primrose, Superintendent, 126, 205
- private police forces, 84
- Provencher, J.A.N., 132–133, 146
R
- Rabinow, Paul, 3
- racism (see also paternalism): of BC settlers, 151–152
- Ramsden, J.G., 107, 118, 175–176
- ranchers/ranching: by First Nations, 129, 161–162, 181
- RCMP, 57–58, 83. see also NWMP (North West Mounted Police)
- Red Crow, Chief, 67, 79, 125, 154
- Reed, Hayter: and abolishing tribal system, 124
- Rendle, J.E., 76
- reserves (see also
resistance): as aid to colonialism, 8–9
- attempt to reduce Kainai, 203–210
- attempt to reduce Piikani, 210–213
- DIA policy of, 49–50, 136, 137
- early BC policy for, 139–143
- early intrusions into, 137–138, 140, 141
- incompatibility with land surveys, 134–135
- and Joint Reserve Commission, 144–145, 149–152
- Long Lake sale and surrender, 173–178
- maps, x–xi;
- and McKenna-McBride Commission, 179–188
- missionaries role in reducing, 167–169
- motivation for reducing, 219–221
- Nakoda fight for Kootenay Plains, 198–200
- and policy of disenfranchisement, 48–50
- promised in text of Treaty 7, 156–157
- reducing size of, in BC, 163–166, 185–186
- reducing size of, in Treaty 7 region, 197–198, 200–203, 213–219
- reductions to, in WWI, 223–224
- as reformatory strategy, 9, 15–16
- reversion of land from, 165, 179
- size of, in BC, 161–162, 164–165
- residential schools, 228
- resistance: to alienation of land, 159
- by Blackfoot, 148
- and fundraising ban, 195
- government reaction to, 143–144, 170–171, 232
- by Kainai to reserve reduction, 203–210
- to liberal rule, 234–235; localized, 6, 222, 235
- to McKenna-McBride Commission report, 188–189, 190–192
- as natural corollary of power, 5–6
- by Nisga’a, 170, 188
- by Okanagan, 146, 149–150, 170, 173, 188
- by Piikani, 210–213
- to reserve policy in BC, 143–144, 149–151, 170–173
- by Secwepemc, 143–144, 146, 150, 170, 188
- by settlers, 151–152
- by Siksika, 217– 218, 219
- through missionaries, 168–169
- by Tsuu T’ina, 201–203
- Riel Rebellion of 1870, 99
- Roche, W.J., 188
- Ross, Alexander, 38
- Ross, H.C., 174
- Royal Proclamation of 1763, 45, 46
- Ryan, Simon, 22, 135–136
S
- Samek, Hana, 209–210, 221
- sanitation, 112, 113–114
- Schmidt, C. Pant, 73
- Scollen, Constantine, 103
- Scott, Duncan Campbell: and Anglo-Canadian morality, 110–111
- and consent, 221
- and denying First Nations information, 95
- on DIA, 94, 99
- on First Nations’ treaties, 231
- and Greater Production scheme, 224–225
- and Kainai reserve, 206, 207, 208, 209–210
- and liberal ideals, 13, 14
- and McKenna-McBride Commission report, 189, 190–191
- on reserves, 49, 136
- and Siksika reserve, 215, 216–217, 218–219
- and soldier settlement, 226–227
- at Special Joint Committee of 1927, 192–193
- and Tsuu T’ina reserve, 201
- and war veterans, 228, 231
- scouts, 81, 85–86, 87–88
- security, 221
- Secwepemc: deposing of Chiefs, 102
- and disease, 43–44
- economy of, 38–39, 41
- history before European contact, 36–37
- and Indian agents, 73–74, 117, 118, 122, 123
- and logging, 102
- at McKenna-McBride Commission, 181, 182–183, 185, 186
- political leadership, 41–42
- reduction of reserves, 140, 167, 186, 227
- resistance to reserve policy, 143–144, 146, 150, 170, 188
- self-government, 45, 129, 236
- settlers: in early BC, 138–139
- Sexqeltqi’n, 119, 181
- sexual mores, 110–113
- Shaw, James A., 180
- Shot on Both Sides, Chief, 207, 226
- Sifton, Clifford, 103, 220
- Siksika: and DIA agents, 96
- Silpahan, Francois, 102
- Simons, Constable, 90
- Sitting Bull, 146
- smallpox, 43
- Smart, James, 71, 100–101, 113
- Smith, J.F.: on agent Irwin, 117
- Smith, Trefor, 117
- Smythe, Selby, 82
- Snow, John, 35–36, 155
- Soldier Settlement Act, 226–227
- Special Joint Committee of the Senate and House of Commons (1927), 94–95, 192–195
- spiritualism, 32, 33–34
- Splats’in, 167
- Springett, A.R., 66, 121
- Sproat, G.M.: and First Nations’ politics, 124
- Spurr, David, 18
- Starnes, Cortlandt, 79
- Steele, S.B., 55, 62, 66, 79
- Stevens, H.H., 95, 192, 193
- Stewart, Charles, 225
- Stocken, H.W. Gibbon, 217, 219
- Stuart, John, 44
- St’uxwtews, 122, 123
- surveillance: by BCPP, 74–75
- and colonialism, 17–18, 27
- by DIA, 16–18, 52, 93–94, 96
- extent of network, 1–2, 16–17, 234
- failure of, 129
- of First Nations’ houses, 113–114
- of First Nations’ lawyers, 84, 172
- by First Nations’ scouts and police, 84–89
- of First Nations’ women, 74–75
- of Indian agents, 104, 105–106
- by J. McDougall, 167, 169
- and land surveys, 136
- mandated in Treaty 7, 157, 158
- as means of controlling First Nations, 51–52
- and missionaries, 52–53
- by NWMP, 56, 59–60, 66
- and panoptic machinery, 4–7, 59, 90, 104, 114–115, 134–136
- in support of liberal expansion, 7, 90–91, 131
- of police, 89–90
- in Treaty 7 region, 197
- and Treaty 7 signing, 156
- Swinford, S., 107
T
- Tait, John, 149
- Tawhalst, Antoine, 181
- Teit, James, 170, 188, 190
- Tennant, Paul, 139, 192
- Thomas, Mary, 84–85, 185
- Thomson, Duane, 36
- Thunder Chief, 125
- Tims, J.W., 54
- title, Aboriginal: BC-Canada agreement on, 158–159, 161
- Tonasket, Louie, 178
- Tootoosis, John, 100
- trade, 38–39
- Treaty 1, 146
- Treaty 2, 146
- Treaty 7: annuity payments, 43
- Treaty 8, 192
- Treaty 7 region: and DIA agents, 96–97, 98–99
- Tsilhqot’in, 38
- Tsuu T’ina: and census taking, 117
- Turner, Dale, 235–236
- Turriff, J. G., 119
U
V
- Vagrant Act, 62, 63, 74–75, 112
- veterans, WWI, 226–231
- Vowell, Arthur W., 74, 102, 116, 164, 165–166, 173
W
- Wadsworth, T.P., 106, 112, 117
- Walkem, George, 142, 162
- Walsh, J. M., 78
- War Measures Act, 208, 225
- watchmen, 84–85
- wealth and status, 35, 40
- Wesley band, 32
- Wetmore, E.L., 180, 182, 184
- White, Fred: conflict with DIA, 78, 79–80
- White, Nathaniel W., 180
- Whitecalf, Chief, 153
- Williams, C.E., 151
- Wilson, R.N., 107, 126, 205, 208–209
- women: authority of, 33–34
- Wood, Wentworth, 102
- Woolford, Andrew, 236
- World War I, 223–231
X
- Xgat’temc, 38