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INDEX
Photographs and tables indicated by page numbers in italics
- Aako’ka’tssin (summer gathering): at Ammskaapipiikani, 102–3
- colonial pressure on, 100–101
- contemporary at Siksika, 203–4
- Horst Schmidt invited to, 158
- Iitskinaiksi bundles repatriated for Kainai, 108–9, 157–58
- at Kainai, 108
- literal meaning of, 63n6
- Okan, Sun Dance of the Blackfoot (film), 49, 63n6, 202–3
- purpose and format of, 100
- repatriation of bundles from Denver Art Museum for, 167
- revival of at Siksika, 111, 124, 193, 197–200, 214–15
- at Siksika, 107
- aawaaahsskataiksi (ceremonial grandparent), 72
- Aboriginals, see First Nations
- Above People (Sspommitapiiksi), 81
- AFN/CMA Task Force on Museums and First Peoples, 14, 55, 241–42, 249
- Aimmoniisi (Otter), 81
- Aisin’aipi (Writing-on-Stone), 177
- Aitkens, Wendy, 175
- Alberta Community Development, 228
- Alberta government: on Glenbow’s steps towards repatriation, 25–26
- Alberta Museums Association, 200–202
- alcohol, 86, 107
- All Smoke Ceremony (Kano’tsisissin), 136, 202
- American Museum of Natural History (AMNH), 42, 160, 162–63
- Ames, Michael M., 51
- Ammskaapipiikani (Piegan, Blackfeet): Aako’ka’tssin (summer gathering), 102–3
- Amopistaan (Iitskinaiksi Leader’s Bundle), 184, 197, 207, 208, 215, 218
- Anglican missionaries, 142. See also Christianity
- Anishinabe, 73, 80
- Annenberg Foundation, 14
- Anoee, Eric, 246
- anthropology, 42
- Apache, 14
- Apatohsipiikani (Piikani, Peigan): areas of knowledge of, 143
- bundle transfers within, 145
- Long Time Medicine Pipe Bundle of, 147–49, 176–77
- members from involved in repatriation, 181
- men harvesting hay, 100
- and Natoas bundle replica, 56, 110, 143
- and O’kaan, 107
- as part of Niitsitapi, 9, 75
- revival of O’kaan and Kana’tsomitaiksi (Brave Dog Society), 108, 109–10, 218–19
- territory of, 9, 78
- Archaeological Survey of Alberta, 223
- archaeology: field work practices of, 243–44
- artists, 31
- Assembly of First Nations (AFN), see AFN/CMA Task Force on Museums and First Peoples
- Australia: repatriation in, 235
- Axe, Randall, 190
- Bad Eagle, Art, 135–36
- Baillargeon, Morgan, 147, 148
- Bastien, Betty: Blackfoot Ways of Knowing, 18, 63n6
- Bastien, Leonard, 128, 144, 215, 254–55
- Bear Chief, Norbert, 190
- Bear Knife Bundle, 128
- Beaver (Ksisskstaki), 75, 81
- Beaver Bundles: history recorded by keeper of, 88
- Beaver Bundles, specific: at American Museum of Natural History, 162
- Ben Calf Robe Beaver Bundle, 215, 217
- Bos Ribs Beaver Bundle, 128
- Eagle Speaker Beaver Bundle, 126, 161
- Elk Tongue Beaver Bundle, 144
- Head Carrier Beaver Bundle, 128, 215
- Home Gun Beaver Bundle, 127
- Little Light Beaver Bundle, 217
- at Peabody Museum, 126, 161
- Raw Eater Beaver Bundle, 217
- White Calf Beaver Bundle, 127–28
- Ben Calf Robe Beaver Bundle, 215, 217
- Berry, Susan, 225, 231, 232
- Binnema, Theodore, 79, 80
- bison, 75, 93, 94, 95
- bison robe trade, 61, 86
- Bizot Group, 266
- Black Face Chief, Jim, 185
- Blackfeet, see Ammskaapipiikani (Piegan, Blackfeet)
- Blackfoot, see Niitsitapi (Blackfoot)
- Blackfoot (First Nation), see Siksika (Blackfoot)
- Blackfoot—100 Years (film), 211
- Blackfoot Way (Siksikasitapi), 139
- Blackfoot Ways of Knowing (Bastien), 18, 63n6
- Black Kettle, Maggie (Old Lady), 185, 188
- Black Plume, Bob, 140, 141, 150
- Black Rider, 207
- Black Rider Medicine Pipe Bundle, 211, 218
- Blackwater, Andy, 174, 226
- Black Weasel, Tom, 161
- Blackwell, Beatrice, 173
- Blood, see Kainai (Blood)
- Blood, Narcisse: on committee to negotiate with Alberta government, 145
- and Denver Art Museum negotiations, 166
- involved in repatriation, 180
- Kááahsinnooniksi (film), 34
- and Medicine Pipe Bundle (Gonzaga University), 159
- and Medicine Pipe Bundle (Smithsonian), 126
- at Pitt Rivers Museum conference, 175
- on PMA advisory committee, 169, 225
- at repatriation from Heye Foundation, 166
- at repatriation from Peabody Museum, 161
- on reverse archaeology, 238
- at signing of agreement between Glenbow and Mookaakin, 253
- at University of Aberdeen conference, 176
- and vandalism at Okotoks, 238, 239, 240
- boarding schools, see residential schools
- Boas, Franz, 42–43
- Bodmer, Karl, 85, 132
- Bos Ribs Beaver Bundle, 128
- Bottle, Randy, 173, 180
- Bow Valley, 202
- Brass, Dick, 149
- Breaker, Fred, 190, 208
- Brink, Jack, 231
- British Columbia Provincial Museum, see Royal British Columbia Museum
- British Museum, 30–31, 267
- Brown, Alison, 172–73, 174, 181
- Buchan, Alastair, 254
- buffalo, see bison
- Buffalo (Old Lady), 136, 149–50
- buffalo stones, see iiniskim (buffalo stones)
- Buffalo Women’s Society, see Maoto’kiiksi (Buffalo Women’s Society)
- Bull Plume, 88, 89, 91
- bundles, see Beaver Bundles; Natoas bundles; sacred bundles; Thunder Medicine Pipe Bundles
- Byrne, William J., 225, 228–29, 231, 256–57
- Calahasen, Pearl, 233
- Calf Robe, Ben, 150, 216
- Canada: Cultural Educational Centres Program, 137
- treaties with First Nations by, 94
- Treaty 7 and, 94–95. See also colonialism
- Canadian Museum of Civilization, 147–48, 176–77
- Canadian Museums Association (CMA), see AFN/CMA Task Force on Museums and First Peoples
- Carter, Beth, 181
- Catlin, George, 85, 132
- ceremonial grandparent (aawaaahsskataiksi), 72
- Chambers, Cynthia, 34
- Chatain, Denis, 158
- Chief Mountain (Ninastako), 75
- children: in foster care, 177. See also residential schools
- Christianity, 142, 154, 189
- Circle of the Sun (film), 63n5
- collection institutions, see museum/First Nations relationships; museums
- collectors, 74, 142, 154–55. See also Heye, George; Scriver, Robert; Walters, Madge Hardin
- Collison, Nika, 16–17
- colonialism: after bison extinction, 95
- American policies of, 97
- and changing property attitudes, 104–5
- culture shock under, 97–99
- and food provisions, 98, 104
- Frank Weasel Head on, 153–54
- Gerald Conaty on, 263–64
- Herman Yellow Old Woman on, 200–201
- land sale under, 101
- lifting of restrictions, 107
- and Niitsitapi values and history, 73
- and residential schools, 104
- restrictions under, 97–98, 107
- and salvage ethnography, 106–7, 154
- and spiritual practices, 100–101, 107
- and voting rights, 107. See also residential schools
- Columbia University, 42
- Colwell-Chanthaphonh, Chip, 25
- communities of practice, 30–31
- Conaty, Gerald: Chris McHugh on, 210
- Frank Weasel Head on, 181
- on hierarchical management at Glenbow, 248
- inducted into Kainai Chieftainship, 9
- introduction of to sacred objects, 21–24, 23
- Jerry Potts on, 144
- and Mookaakin Society, 169
- at Pitt Rivers Museum conference, 175
- and repatriation from Marischal Museum, 173
- role at Glenbow, 25, 26, 250, 251, 252
- on traditional knowledge, 57
- Cope, Thomas, 39–40
- Crazy Bull, Sandra, 174
- creation stories, 28
- Crop Eared Wolf, Annabel, 161, 166, 180
- Crop Eared Wolf, Louise, 180
- Cross Child, Delia, 175
- Crow Chief, Charlie, 173
- Crow Chief, Raymond, 190, 196, 210
- Crowfoot (chief), 175–76
- Crowfoot, Strater, 147
- Crowshoe, Albertine, 175
- Crowshoe, Joe (Old Man), 109–10, 119, 121, 135, 136, 137, 150
- Crowshoe, Reg, 24, 140, 143, 169, 225
- Crowshoe, Rose, 225
- cultural autonomy, 83
- cultural domination, 72
- Cultural Education Centres Program, 137
- cultural evolution, 40–41, 51
- cultural identity, 27, 82, 131–32
- cultural landscapes, 238
- curators, 43, 52, 58–59, 218
- Curtis, Edward, 24, 77, 106
- Darwin, Charles, 40
- Day Chief, Winston, 199
- Day Rider, Rosie, 180
- Declaration on the Importance and Value of Universal Museums, 14–15, 266–67
- Delaney, Adam: and 1970s Iitskinaiksi bundles repatriation to Kainai, 26, 108, 121, 142–43, 157, 158
- and Amopistaan (Iitskinaiksi Leader’s Bundle), 207
- and Kit Fox Medicine Pipe Bundle, 196
- meeting with Ralph Klein, 212
- on Niitsitapi self-worth, 269
- and revival of Aako’ka’tssin at Siksika, 197–99
- and revival of Iitskinaiksi at Siksika, 124, 189–90, 191, 192–93, 197–99, 204, 209, 213–15
- role in repatriation, 180–81
- talking to students, 157
- on transferring bundles, 197
- and White Calf Medicine Pipe Bundle, 166
- Delorme, Rhonda, 234
- Dempsey, Hugh, 78, 95, 104, 241, 250
- Dene (Northern Athapaskans), 243–44
- Denver Art Museum, 166–68
- Dewdney, Edgar, 95
- Discovery, Age of, 39
- diseases, 88–89, 90, 91, 92–93, 153
- eagle feathers, 131, 167
- Eagle Plume, Willie, 150
- Eagle Speaker Beaver Bundle, 126, 161
- Earth People (Ksaahkommitapiiksi), 81
- Echo Hawk, Roger, 167–68
- education, see residential schools
- elders, 31, 72
- Elder’s Retreat, see Spiritual Retreat
- Elk Tongue Beaver Bundle, 144
- Erasmus, George, 249
- Essence of All Life (Ihtsipaitapiyopa), 81
- ethnography, 28
- Europe: repatriation from, 15–16, 265–66. See also United Kingdom
- evolution, 40–41
- Ewers, John, 78
- Feest, Christian, 265–66
- First Charger, Francis, 159, 161, 166
- First Nations: Beverly McLachlin on heritage of, 240n3
- and bison-extinction policy, 95
- right to cultural autonomy, 83
- and self-determination, 237
- and storytelling, 28
- Theodore Binnema on as family networks, 79, 80. See also colonialism; oral tradition; residential schools
- First Nations Sacred Ceremonial Objects Repatriation Act (FNSCORA): consultation with stakeholders, 232
- drafting of, 229–30, 231–32, 259
- Frank Weasel Head on regulations of, 170, 234
- impetus for, 57, 111, 169
- importance of, 133
- and interjurisdictional immunity, 231
- launch of, 37, 233
- legislative counsel role in, 232
- misconceptions about, 235–36
- and NAGPRA, 57, 235–36
- Niitsitapi committee for negotiating with, 144–45
- “object” in, 62–63, 81–82
- public disclosure in, 234
- purpose of, 37–38, 230, 235
- regulations for, 233–35, 259
- treaty areas covered by, 171
- First Rider, Dorothy, 161, 166, 180
- First Rider, Rodney, 180
- FNSCORA, see First Nations Sacred Ceremonial Objects Repatriation Act
- food: under Treaty 7, 98, 104
- Ford, Donald, 228
- Fort Laramie Treaty, 94
- France: museums in, 50
- Full Gospel Church, 142, 200. See also Christianity
- fur trade, 86
- Galt Museum, 174
- Gitxsan, 32–33
- Glasgow Museums, 16
- Glenbow Museum: agreement with Mookaakin Society, 110–11, 168–69, 252, 253, 259
- beginnings of repatriation at, 25–26, 250–52
- bundles loaned from, 56–57, 111, 122–23
- bundles repatriated from, 112, 159
- collecting practices at, 46, 49
- decision at to repatriate, 111, 228, 256
- exhibit approach of, 46, 48
- first loan request from, 249–50
- First Nations Advisory Council, 56, 251–52
- founding of, 45–46, 256
- hierarchical management at, 248
- Iitskinaiksi bundles repatriated from, 159, 190, 193, 195, 210–11
- as leader in repatriation, 215, 217
- loan to Weasel Moccasin family, 56–57, 159, 241, 250
- long-term loan policy of, 219, 224
- mandate for First Nations involvement, 248
- national meeting on loans and repatriation at, 226–27
- “Niitsitapiisinni: Our Way of Life” exhibit, 29, 174, 259–60
- organizational factors at and repatriation, 30, 247–48
- personnel involved in repatriation, 181
- relationship with Alberta government, 247, 256–58
- relationship with Niitsitapi, 44, 144, 252–55
- repatriation ceremony at with Ralph Klein, 229, 258–59
- and repatriation from Denver Art Museum, 167
- repatriation of Ben Calf Robe Beaver Bundle from, 215, 217
- resilience at, 260
- risk taking at, 252–53
- strategic planning at, 248
- “The Spirit Sings” exhibit, 53–54, 249
- travelling display from, 174. See also Conaty, Gerald; Janes, Robert R.
- Godelier, Maurice, 60
- Goes In The Center, John, 168
- Gonzaga University, 128, 159–60
- Good Striker, Wilton, 159
- government, see Alberta government; tribal governments
- grandparent, ceremonial (aawaaahsskataiksi), 72
- Grinnell, George Bird, 24, 77–78, 106
- Grounds, Rick, 128
- guns, 61
- Haida, 16–17, 30–31, 35n1
- Hallowell, A. Irving, 73, 80
- Harrison, Julia, 29–30
- Harrison, Raymond O., 45
- Harvie, Eric L., 45–46, 256
- Head Carrier Beaver Bundle, 128, 215
- headdresses, 130, 131
- Head-Smashed-In Buffalo Jump, 56
- Healy, Les, 161
- Heavy Head, Adrienne, 175, 176
- Heavy Head, Martin: bundle transferred to Roger Hunt, 176
- on committee for negotiating with Alberta government, 145
- in delegation to America, 162
- honour song for Ralph Klein at FNSCORA launch, 233
- involved in repatriation, 180
- and Medicine Pipe Bundle (Gonzaga University), 128, 159, 160
- on PMA advisory committee, 169, 225
- at repatriation from Peabody Museum, 161
- and White Calf Medicine Pipe Bundle, 166
- Heavy Head, Pam, 160, 166
- Heavy Head, Quentin, 172, 180
- Heavy Head, Ryan, 128, 133, 160–61, 175, 176
- Heavy Shield, 187
- Heye, George, 43–44
- Heye Foundation, 160, 163, 165–66
- Historical Resources Act, 169
- Historic Sites Service, 223
- Home Gun Beaver Bundle, 127
- Hopi Nation, 14
- Hopkins, Edward, 174
- Horn Society, see Iitskinaiksi (Horn Society)
- horses, 61
- Hudson’s Bay Company, 84–85, 86, 94
- human remains, 54, 154, 161–62, 230, 242
- Hungry Wolf, Adolf, 78, 108–9, 121, 136–37
- Hunt, Roger, 176
- Ihtsipaitapiyopa (Essence of All Life), 81
- iiniskim (buffalo stones), 75, 81, 170
- Iipisowaahs (Morning Star), 81
- Iitskinaiksi (Horn Society): 1988 repatriation of bundle from Glenbow, 159
- Adam Delany and first repatriation of bundles to Kainai, 26, 108, 121, 142–43, 156–59
- all bundles of repatriated to, 173
- Amopistaan (Leader’s Bundle), 184, 197, 207, 208, 215, 218
- Black Rider Medicine Pipe Bundle, 211
- bundles kept in Old Sun College, 190, 210–11
- bundles of not sold, 193
- bundles of split up, 195–96
- future of in Siksika, 204, 220–21
- Jerry Potts in at Kainai, 140
- John Ives memory of bundle return to, 226
- at Kainai, 108, 122, 134, 136, 140, 143
- Kit Fox (Sinopahsipista’an) Bundle, 196–97, 207, 211–12
- and Long Time Medicine Pipe Bundle (Piikani), 147–48
- and Pete Standing Alone, 63n5, 109
- purpose of, 212
- repatriation of bundles from Glenbow to Siksika, 190, 193, 195, 210–11
- repatriation of bundles from PMA to Siksika, 124, 195–97, 207–8, 211–12
- repatriation of headdress from Scotland to Kainai, 133, 176
- repatriation of Kainai bundle from PMA, 145
- resistance to revival of in Siksika, 189, 193, 208, 209, 212–13
- revival of among Siksika, 107, 111, 126, 143–44, 184–85, 189–93, 198–200, 204, 207–15, 213–15
- songs of, 204
- transfer since revival in Siksika, 218
- Indian Act, 231
- Indian agents, 97–98, 264
- Indigenous, see First Nations
- interjurisdictional immunity, 231
- International Group of Organizers of Large-Scale Exhibitions, 266
- “Into the Heart of Africa” exhibit, 52–53
- Inuit Cultural Institute, 246
- Ives, John W.: in Australia, 235
- Janes, Robert R.: on AFN/CMA task force, 242
- education of, 243
- and first loan request at Glenbow, 249
- on future of museums, 260
- Jerry Potts on, 144
- and loan to Weasel Moccasin family, 241
- Niitsitapi naming of, 254
- in Northwest Territories, 243–44
- personal perspective of, 255
- at Prince of Wales Northern Heritage Centre, 245–47
- professional background of, 223–24
- on resilience, 260, 269
- and revival of Niitsitapi spiritual practices, 57
- shaping of Glenbow by, 242–43, 248
- at signing of agreement between Glenbow and Mookaakin, 253
- support for repatriation of, 25, 181, 255–56
- understanding of objects of, 246–47
- Kááahsinnooniksi: If the Land Could Speak…and We Would Listen (film), 34
- Kainai (Blood): Aako’ka’tssin at, 108
- beginnings of repatriation requests by, 26, 110
- Eagle Speaker Beaver Bundle, 126
- Gerald Conaty inducted into, 9
- Iitskinaiksi at, 108, 122, 134, 136, 140, 143
- Long Time Medicine Pipe Bundle, 108–9, 121, 137, 147
- members from involved in repatriation, 180
- as part of Niitsitapi, 9, 75
- pressure to sell reserve land, 101
- repatriating Iitskinaiksi headdress from Scotland to, 16, 133, 176
- territory of, 9
- on transferring bundles, 197
- women waiting for rations, 99. See also Mookaakin Culture and Heritage Society; Weasel Moccasin bundle
- Kainai Peacemaking Centre, 178
- Kakkooyiiksi (Pigeons or Doves Society), 172, 177–78
- Kana’tsomitaiksi (Brave Dog Society), 109, 121–22, 137, 139–40, 183
- Kane, Paul, 85, 132
- Kano’tsisissin (All Smoke Ceremony), 136, 202
- Kerr, Irene, 181
- Kicking Woman, George, 136
- Kiitokiiksi (Prairie Chicken Society), 183, 184, 185, 193
- Kipp, G.G., 144
- Kit Fox Medicine Pipe Bundle (Sinopahsipista’an), 196–97, 207, 211–12
- Kitkatla Banc v. British Columbia [2002], 240n3
- Klein, Ralph, 146, 168–69, 211–12, 225, 228–29, 253, 258–59
- knowledge, traditional, 18, 32–33, 57
- knowledge transfer, 57, 88, 268
- Ko’komiki’somm (Moon), 81
- Kowalski, Ken, 233
- Krmpotich, Cara, 30–31
- Ksaahkommitapiiksi (Earth People), 81
- Ksiistsikomm (Thunder), 75, 81
- Ksisskstaki (Beaver), 75, 81
- LaFrombois, Conrad, 144
- Laird, David, 95
- Lakota Ghost Dance shirt, 16
- Lame Bull Treaty, 93–94
- language, Niitsitapi, 176–77, 267–68
- Leader’s Bundle (Iitskinaiksi), see Amopistaan (Iitskinaiksi Leader’s Bundle)
- Leader’s Bundle (Kana’tsomitaiksi), 139, 140
- Leather, Clement, 190, 204
- LeBeau, Marcella, 176
- Lewis, Oscar, 61
- Lindow Man exhibit, 64n10
- Little Leaf (Old Man), 149
- Little Light Beaver Bundle, 217
- Little Walker, Naomi, 87
- Lokensgard, Kenneth Hayes, 60–61
- Long Time Medicine Pipe Bundle (Kainai), 108–9, 121, 137, 147
- Long Time Medicine Pipe Bundle (Piikani), 147–49, 176–77
- Louvre, 50
- Lubicon Cree, 53
- Magee Shirer, Debbie, 175
- Manchester Museum, 64n10
- Manitoba Museum, 56
- Manneschmidt, Sybille, 24
- Many Bears, Floyd, 159
- Many Fires, Steve, 185, 189
- Many Grey Horses, 108–9, 121
- Many Guns (Old Lady), 136, 143, 149–50
- Many Shots, 125
- Many Shots Medicine Pipe Bundle, 124
- Maoto’kiiksi (Buffalo Women’s Society), 22–23, 107, 167, 185, 194–95, 215
- Marischal Museum, 16, 173
- Markle, J.A., 98, 101
- Marstine, Janet, 255
- McClintock, Walter, 24, 106
- McCloy, Dal, 168
- McDougal, John and Lisa, 166
- McHugh, Chris: and Amopistaan (Iitskinaiksi Leader’s Bundle), 184, 197, 207, 215
- and Ben Calf Robe Beaver Bundle, 215
- on effects of repatriation, 219–20
- on future of Iitskinaiksi in Siksika, 220–21
- on Glenbow, 215, 217
- and grandmother’s illness, 205–6
- and Head Carrier Beaver Bundle, 128, 215
- on importance of repatriation, 218–19
- involvement in repatriation, 181
- and Kit Fox Medicine Pipe Bundle, 196
- meeting with Ralph Klein, 212
- and repatriation from Medicine Hat Museum, 194–95
- and repatriation from Royal Ontario Museum, 217–18
- and repatriation of Iitskinaiksi bundles from Glenbow, 210
- and repatriation of Iitskinaiksi bundles from PMA, 211–12
- and revival of Iitskinaiksi in Siksika, 143, 144, 184–85, 190, 205–6, 207, 209–10, 213–15
- and songs of Iitskinaiksi, 204
- visions of for Iitskinaiksi revival, 212–13
- McHugh, Clarence, 186
- McHugh, Daphne, 207
- McHugh, Victoria (Old Lady): illness of, 205–6
- McKenna, James, 98
- McLachlin, Beverly, 240n3
- McMaster, Leslie, 206, 207, 212
- McMullen, Ann, 44
- Medicine Hat Museum, 194–95, 215
- medicine men: types of, 218
- Medicine Pipe Bundle (Gonzaga University), 128, 159, 160
- Medicine Pipe Bundle (Smithsonian), 126
- medicine pipes, 81, 135–36, 150. See also sacred bundles
- sacred objects
- Thunder Medicine Pipe Bundles
- medicine wheels, 75
- Miller, Bruce, 32
- Mistaken Chief, Betty, 173
- Mistaken Chief, Duane, 172, 173
- Mistaken Chief, Marvin, 173
- Mohawk, 53
- mokaki (wise person), 72, 268
- Mookaakin Culture and Heritage Society: agreement with Glenbow, 110–11, 168–69, 252, 253, 259
- Moon (Ko’komiki’somm), 81
- Morning Star (Iipisowaahs), 81
- Mountain Horse, Alvine, 161, 175, 176
- Murray, Carol, 144, 161, 181
- Murray, John, 127, 144, 181
- museum/First Nations relationships: AFN/CMA Task Force on Museums and First Peoples, 14, 55, 241–42, 249
- in America, 13–14
- in Canada, 14
- collaborative effort needed for repatriation, 124
- and concept of other-than-humans, 80–81
- and defining traditional territory, 79
- differing approaches to repatriation, 38, 265
- and due process of loans and repatriation, 227
- and First Nations exhibits, 29–32
- and human remains, 161–62
- Indigenous view of collections, 246
- and long-term loans, 111
- Niitsitapi response to museum’s questions on repatriation, 71–73, 74
- and organizational structures, 29–30
- and privileging Western knowledge, 33
- projects involving First Nations in museums, 56
- and salvage ethnography, 106–7, 154
- transfer of bundles to museums, 155–56, 238. See also museums
- Museum of the American Indian, 43–44, 160
- Museum of the Plains Indian, 78
- museums: approaches to exhibits, 52
- assumptions about artifacts, 71
- Boasian approach to, 43
- collections practices, 246
- Declaration on the Importance and Value of Universal Museums, 14–15, 266–67
- development of, 38–44, 50–52
- distinctive traits and characteristics of, 242
- European, 265–66
- in France, 50
- Frank Weasel Head on objects in, 178–79
- George Heye’s approach to, 44
- loans understood by, 227
- new ethics of, 255
- objectivity assumed by, 49, 242
- objects in, 58–59
- people from in repatriation, 181
- politics of, 49–50
- as reflection of dominant society, 51
- Robert Janes on future of, 260
- self-understanding of purpose, 58, 236, 255
- as socially responsible institutions, 25
- in United Kingdom, 50–51
- visitor-centred, 52. See also museum/First Nations relationships; specific museums
- museums, Canadian: and repatriation, 37, 55
- Museums and Source Communities (book), 173
- naatosi (sacred power), 218
- Naatosi (Sun), 81
- NAGPRA, see Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act
- Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA): distinction between communal and private ownership in, 57, 167
- Natoas bundles: headdress, 120
- Niitsitapi (Blackfoot): and American expansion, 93–94
- ceremonial grandparents among, 72
- cultural adaptibility of, 61
- and disease, 88–89, 90, 91, 92–93
- goal in relating history and culture of, 34, 74
- history, Niitsitapi understanding of, 73–74
- knowledge transfer, 57, 268
- language, 176–77, 267–68
- literature on, 24–25, 42
- meaning of term, 9
- mix of traditional and colonial culture among, 104
- mutual support in culture of, 268
- origin accounts of, 77–79
- patriotism of, 213
- relations between Blackfoot-speaking groups, 171–72
- reserves, 96
- shunning among, 155
- significance of place for, 79–80
- social relationships between humans and other-than-humans, 80, 81
- spiritual concepts of, translating, 72–73
- spiritual revival of, 107–8
- and trade, 84–86, 94
- traditional territory of, 9, 75, 76, 77, 159
- Treaty 7 and, 94–95
- tribal governments of, 165
- worldview of, 81. See also Ammskaapipiikani (Piegan, Blackfeet)
- Apatohsipiikani (Piikani, Peigan) colonialism Kainai (Blood) museum/First Nations relationships oral tradition repatriation sacred bundles sacred objects sacred societies Siksika (Blackfoot)
- “Niitsitapiisinni: Our Way of Life” exhibit, 29, 174, 259–60
- Ninastako (Chief Mountain), 75
- Northern Athapaskans (Dene), 243–44
- Northern Blackfoot, see Siksika (Blackfoot)
- Northwest Territories, 243–44, 245, 261n1
- Nowicki, Julian, 225
- Nugent, David, 61
- Nunavut, 245
- Nuu-chah-nulth: “Out of the Mist” exhibit, 29, 31
- objects, 58–60, 59, 81–82, 246–47. See also sacred bundles sacred objects
- Oetelaar, D. Joy, 80
- Oetelaar, Gerald A., 80
- Ojibwa, see Anishinabe
- O’kaan (Sun Dance): after Treaty 7, 100–101
- Okan, Sun Dance of the Blackfoot (film), 49, 63n6, 202–3
- Okotoks, 238, 239, 240
- Oldman River Cultural Centre, 137, 226
- “Old Man’s Sliding Ground,” 78
- Olds, Cyril, 149
- Old Shoes, Percy, 23
- Old Sun Community College, 190, 191, 210–11
- On the Origin of Species (Darwin), 40
- oral tradition, 32–33, 74, 78, 152
- Otter (Aimmoniisi), 81
- “Out of the Mist” exhibit, 29, 31
- Owl Child, Nat, 196, 207, 212
- Pa’ksikopyi Bundles, 139
- pan-Indianism, 268–69
- Pard, Allan: on British Museum exhibits, 267
- bundles repatriated by, 124, 126–28
- on committee for provincial government, 145
- involvement in repatriation, 181
- and Long Time Medicine Pipe Bundle (Piikani), 148
- on making new bundles, 128, 131, 132
- and Mookaakin Culture and Heritage Society, 143
- at Oldman River Cultural Centre, 137
- at Pitt Rivers Museum conference, 175
- and PMA advisory committee, 169, 225
- on purpose of repatriation, 133, 263
- at repatriation from Peabody Museum, 161
- and repatriation of Natoas bundle, 217
- and revival of Iitskinaiksi in Siksika, 144, 207, 208
- and revival of O’kaan at Piikani, 119, 121, 137, 139
- and vandalism at Okotoks, 238, 239, 240
- Peabody Museum, 126, 160, 161
- Peers, Laura, 30–31, 173, 174, 181
- Peigan, see Apatohsipiikani (Piikani, Peigan)
- Peters, Robert G., 253
- Pettipas, Katherine, 56
- Phillips, Ruth, 53
- Piegan, see Ammskaapipiikani (Piegan, Blackfeet)
- Piikani, see Apatohsipiikani (Piikani, Peigan)
- pipes, see medicine pipes
- Pitt Rivers, A.H.L., 41
- Pitt Rivers Museum: exhibits at, 41–42
- places, important, 34
- Platter, Thomas, 39
- PMA, see Provincial Museum of Alberta
- “Policy on Disposition of Museum Collections and Objects,” 57, 63n9
- Poor Eagle, Beatrice (Old Lady), 184, 185, 200
- postcolonial Indigenous theory, 33–34
- postcolonial theory, 33, 35n2
- Potts, Jerry: on committee for provincial government, 145
- in Iitskinaiksi at Kainai, 140
- involvement in repatriation, 181
- in Kana’tsomitaiksi (Brave Dog Society), 137, 139–40
- learning of traditional ceremonies by, 136, 140
- and Long Time Medicine Pipe Bundle (Piikani), 147–49, 176–77
- pipes made by, 135–36, 150
- and PMA advisory committee, 169, 225
- on repatriation, 143, 149–50
- and revival of Iitskinaiksi in Siksika, 207, 208
- Prairie Chicken, Alan, 199
- Prairie Chicken, Charlene, 198
- Prairie Chicken, Roger, 198, 215
- Prairie Chicken Society, see Kiitokiiksi (Prairie Chicken Society)
- Pretty Young Man, Leo, Jr., 190, 212
- Prince of Wales Northern Heritage Centre, 245–46
- protocol: for bundle transfers, 61–62, 124, 126, 191–92, 210
- Provincial Museum of Alberta (PMA): 1970s confrontation with Kainai, 26, 158
- acquisitions by in 1980s and 1990s, 224
- Archaeology and Ethnology Section, 223–24
- Blackfoot Confederacy Advisory Committee on Museum Relations, 225–26
- bundles formally transferred to, 45, 238
- collecting program at, 46
- fears at about repatriation, 236–37
- first repatriation from under FNSCORA, 236–37
- Iitskinaiksi bundles returned to Kainai, 109, 121–22, 156–59
- loans of sacred objects from, 57, 111–12
- and Long Time Medicine Pipe Bundle (Kainai), 108–9, 137
- Natoas bundle loan and replication, 56, 109–10, 143
- Niitsitapi committee for negotiating with, 169
- overview of, 44–45
- preference of for replicas, 224, 258
- process for repatriation from, 146
- repatriation of Iitskinaiksi bundles to Siksika, 195–97, 207–8, 211–12
- repatriation of Siksika Medicine Pipe Bundles, 171
- request from Ralph Klein on sacred objects policy, 225
- Scriver Collection, 64n11, 126–27, 143, 148, 171–72
- Raczka, Paul, 78–79, 160
- Raw Eater Beaver Bundle, 217
- RBCM, see Royal British Columbia Museum
- reconciliation, 237, 240
- Red Crow Community College, 173
- Reeves, Brian, 78
- repatriation: across US border, 144, 159–60, 219, 227
- Allan Pard on, 133, 263
- in Australia, 235
- Canadian federal legislation for, 226–27
- and challenges for Niitsitapi, 123–24, 267–69
- and challenges with museums, 265–67
- of children in foster care, 177
- concerns with, 251
- criteria for, 129, 131, 170
- and cultural identity, 27, 82, 131–32
- and Declaration on the Importance and Value of Universal Museums, 14–15, 266–67
- and defining traditional territory, 79
- effects of, 27–28, 131–32, 149, 176–78, 179–80, 203, 219–20, 259–60, 264
- from European museums, 15–16, 265–66
- Glenbow as leader of, 215, 217
- of headdresses and weasel tail suits, 131
- of human remains, 161–62
- importance of for Niitsitapi, 34–35, 218–19
- at international level, 133
- lack of cultural autonomy in, 83
- misconceptions about, 235–36
- Niitsitapi approach to, 145–46, 156, 265
- and “objects” definition, 62–63
- people involved in, 149–50, 180–81
- and postcolonial Indigenous theory, 33–34
- prior to FNSCORA, 227–29
- by private funding, 14
- process for, 146–47
- purpose of, 27, 133, 269
- as reconciliation, 237
- and religious protocol, 163–65
- as renewed First Nations responsibility, 236
- and replication, 110
- as research project, 29, 31–32
- risk taking in, 252–53
- of sacred sites, 177
- from United Kingdom, 175–76, 266. See also AFN/CMA Task Force on Museums and First Peoples
- First Nations Sacred Ceremonial Objects Repatriation Act
- museum/First Nations relationships
- Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act
- reserves, 96, 97–101, 104
- residential schools: as analogy to sacred objects in museums, 82–83
- reverse archaeology, 238
- Richardson, Heather, 181
- Rider’s Medicine Pipe Bundle, 139, 140
- Rides at the Door (Old Lady), 136
- Ridington, Robin, 28
- Right Hand, Richard, 128, 190, 196, 207, 212
- Roman Catholic missionaries, 142. See also Christianity
- Rosebud Reservation, SD, 176
- Rosier, Paul C., 104
- Royal Alberta Museum, see Provincial Museum of Alberta
- Royal British Columbia Museum (RBCM), 29, 31, 56
- Royal Ontario Museum, 52–53, 217–18
- Royal Saskatchewan Museum, 56
- Russell, Charles M., 106
- sacred, concept of, 41
- sacred bundles: and American and Canadian “Indian”
- policy differences, 97
- “bundle,” use of term, 81–82
- care for, 218
- commodification of, 104–5, 122
- communal ownership of, 133
- in current use, 134
- Daniel Weasel Moccasin on, 21
- Frank Weasel Head on, 164
- and gate keeping transfers, 123
- identifying, 123–24, 129
- for knowledge transfer, 57
- making new, 128, 131, 132, 218, 219
- mixing parts from, 129
- origins of, 164–65
- powers of, 197
- protocol for handling, 148
- protocol for transferring, 61–62, 124, 126, 191–92, 210
- relearning protocols for, 123
- replicas of, 110
- sale to museums of, 105, 107, 132, 189
- transfer of to museums, 45, 155–56, 238
- vocabulary used for, 62. See also Beaver Bundles
- medicine pipes
- sacred objects
- Thunder Medicine Pipe Bundles
- sacred objects: in collections era, 155–56
- commodification of, 60–61, 64n11
- criteria for repatriating, 129, 131, 170
- Gerald Conaty introduced to, 21–24
- and grave robbers, 147
- judicial responses to, 32–33
- monetary value of, 228
- in museums, 62–63
- nature of, 60
- needed for ceremonial life, 122, 231–32
- and postcolonial Indigenous theory, 33–34
- as powerful living beings, 82–83
- and repatriation, 62–63
- residential school analogy for, 82–83
- and salvage ethnography, 106–7, 154
- and social structures, 24
- theft of, and religious practices, 153
- use of term, 81–82. See also iiniskim (buffalo stones)
- sacred bundles
- sacred power (naatosi), 218
- sacred societies, 24, 88, 90, 91, 104, 172. See also Iitskinaiksi (Horn Society); Kakkooyiiksi (Pigeons or Doves Society); Kana’tsomitaiksi (Brave Dog Society); Kiitokiiksi (Prairie Chicken Society); Maoto’kiiksi (Buffalo Women’s Society)
- salvage ethnography, 106–7, 154
- Samek, Hana, 97
- Sandell, Richard, 59
- Saskatchewan Museum of Natural History, 56
- Saukamappee (elder), 92
- Scalplock, Irvine: on committee for provincial government, 145
- Schmidt, Horst, 121, 157, 158
- Schultz, James Willard, 106
- Scotland: repatriation from, 176
- Scott, Duncan Campbell, 104
- Scout, Florence, 23, 159, 198
- Scriver, Robert, 64n11, 143, 171
- Scriver Collection, 126–27, 143, 148, 171–72
- self-determination, 237, 243, 245
- sharing, 17
- Sheepshank Gallery, 51
- Sheldon, Franklin, 198
- Sheridan, Phillip, 93
- shirts, warrior, 17, 174–75, 178, 266
- Short Medicine Pipe Bundle, 109–10, 119, 121, 136, 137
- Siksika (Blackfoot): Aako’ka’tssin at, 49, 107, 111, 203–4
- and bison in Judith Basin, 95
- boys at Anglican mission, 105
- effects of repatriation in, 219–20
- and Long Time Medicine Pipe Bundle (Piikani), 147–48
- Many Shots Medicine Pipe Bundle, 124
- members from in repatriation, 181
- and Okan, Sun Dance of the Blackfoot (film), 63n6
- as part of Niitsitapi, 9, 75
- patriotism of, 213
- repatriation of Iitskinaiksi bundles from PMA, 124, 126, 171, 195–97
- reserve land sold, 101
- resistance to revival of Iitskinaiksi in, 189, 193, 208, 209, 212–13
- revival of Aako-ka’tssin in, 193, 197–200, 214–15
- revival of Iitskinaiksi in, 111, 143–44, 184–85, 189–93, 198–200, 204, 207, 213–15
- territory of, 9
- traditional affairs committee, 148
- on transferring bundles, 197
- Siksika Nation Museum, 226
- Siksikasitapi (Blackfoot Way), 139
- Simpson, George, 85, 174, 266
- Sinopahsipista’an (Kit Fox Medicine Pipe Bundle), 196–97, 207, 211–12
- Sleeps First, 120
- Small (Warrior’s) Medicine Pipe Bundle, 168
- smallpox, 89, 90
- Smithsonian Institution, 55, 128, 219
- Snake Pipe Bundle, 144
- social Darwinism, 40–41, 51
- societies, see sacred societies
- Southern Piikani, see Ammskaapipiikani (Piegan, Blackfeet)
- Southesk, Earl of, 85
- Soyiitapiiksi (Water People), 81
- Spencer, Herbert, 40
- “Spirit Sings, The” exhibit, 53–54, 249
- Spiritual Retreat, 183, 197, 202, 214
- Split-Eared Seizer’s Pipe Bundle, 128
- Spoonhunter, Joyce, 161, 163
- Spotted Bull, Joe, 199
- Sspommitapiiksi (Above People), 81
- Standing Alone, Pete, 9, 63n5, 109, 126, 157, 158
- Stelmach, Ed, 146
- Stepney, Phil, 207, 224
- storytelling, 28
- Stover, Dale, 35n2
- Stud Horse or Turtle, Edna, 210
- summer gathering, see Aako’ka’tssin (summer gathering)
- Sun (Naatosi), 81
- Sun Dance, see O’kaan (Sun Dance)
- Sun Walk, Henry (Old Man), 189, 190, 191, 192, 207, 208, 214
- Supreme Court of Canada, 237, 240n1, 240n3
- Swims Under, Mike, 126, 136, 140, 143, 217
- Tax, Sol, 243
- Tearing Lodge, 77
- territory, traditional, 9, 75, 76, 77, 159
- theorizing, 28
- Thompson, David, 92
- Thornton, Russell, 89
- Three Suns, Emily (Old Lady), 185, 187
- Three Suns, Henry, 190
- Three Suns, Pius, 190–91, 210
- Thunder (Ksiistsikomm), 75, 81
- Thunder Medicine Pipe Bundles, 75, 107–8
- Thunder Medicine Pipe Bundles, specific: Amopistaan (Iitskinaiksi Leader’s Bundle), 184, 197, 207, 208, 215, 218
- Black Rider Medicine Pipe Bundle, 211, 218
- at Gonzaga University, 128, 159, 160
- Kit Fox Medicine Pipe Bundle (Sinopahsipista’an), 196–97, 207, 211–12
- Leader’s Bundle (Kana’tsomitaiksi), 139, 140
- Long Time Medicine Pipe Bundle (Kainai), 108–9, 121, 137, 147
- Long Time Medicine Pipe Bundle (Piikani), 147–49, 176–77
- Many Shots Medicine Pipe Bundle, 124
- Rider’s Medicine Pipe Bundle, 139, 140
- Short Medicine Pipe Bundle, 109–10, 119, 121, 136, 137
- Small (Warrior’s) Medicine Pipe Bundle, 168
- at Smithsonian, 126
- Snake Pipe Bundle, 144
- Split-Eared Seizer’s Pipe Bundle, 128
- Weasel Moccasin bundle, 21–22, 23, 56–57, 110, 159, 241, 250
- Weather Dancers’ Medicine Pipe Bundle, 162
- White Calf Medicine Pipe Bundle, 163, 165–66
- trade, 84–86, 94
- traditional knowledge, 18, 32–33, 57
- Treaty 7, 94–95
- treaty rights, 234
- tribal governments, 165
- Walters, Madge Hardin, 166
- Warrior’s (Small) Medicine Pipe Bundle, 168
- Waskahat, Pete, 233
- Waterchief, Margaret, 112n7, 128
- Water People (Soyiitapiiksi), 81
- Weasel Fat, Andrew, 226
- Weasel Head, Frank: on American Museum of Natural History, 162–63
- on colonization, 153–54
- on committee for provincial government, 145
- on cultural adaption of Niitsitapi, 61
- and Denver Art Museum, 166–68
- on effects of repatriation, 176–78, 179–80, 264
- on federal legislation for repatriation, 226–27
- on FNSCORA regulations, 170–71, 234
- on Gerry Conaty, 181
- on Glenbow advisory council, 169
- involvement of in early repatriations, 151, 156–59, 157–58, 171
- on language and repatriation, 267–68
- and Medicine Pipe Bundle (Gonzaga University), 159, 160
- and Medicine Pipe Bundle (Smithsonian), 126
- and Mookaakin Society, 168
- on objects in museums, 178–79
- on oral tradition, 152
- on PMA advisory committee, 169, 225
- on protocol and repatriation, 163–65
- purpose for writing, 152–53
- and repatriation from Marischal Museum, 16, 173
- at repatriation from Peabody Museum, 161
- and revival of Iitskinaiksi in Siksika, 144, 207, 208
- and shirts at Pitt Rivers Museum, 17, 174
- on societies, 172
- at University of Aberdeen conference, 176
- and White Calf Medicine Pipe Bundle, 163, 166
- Weasel Head, Pat, 150, 207
- Weasel Head, Silvia, 166
- Weasel Moccasin, Dan, 21–22, 23, 110, 159
- Weasel Moccasin, Daniel, 21–22, 23, 159, 254
- Weasel Moccasin bundle, 21–22, 23, 56–57, 110, 159, 241, 250
- weasel tail suits, 130, 131
- Weather Dancers’ Medicine Pipe Bundle, 162
- Weaver, Jace, 35n2
- Weschler, Lawrence, 40
- Whitby-Last, Kathryn, 16
- White Calf, 127
- White Calf Beaver Bundle, 127–28
- White Calf Medicine Pipe Bundle, 163, 165–66
- White Quills, Karen, 173
- Whitford, Lea, 175
- Williams, Calvin, 180
- Wilson, James, 98
- Wings, Emil, 149
- winter counts, 88, 89, 91
- wise person (mokaki), 72, 268
- Wissler, Clark, 24, 42, 106
- Wolf, Charlene, 175
- Wolf Child, Bruce, 144, 157, 199, 207, 208, 229
- Wolf Child, Ed, Sr., 207
- Wolf Leg, Mark, 189, 202
- Woloshyn, Stan, 228, 229
- Women’s Buffalo Jump, 75
- Wounded Knee Survivors Association, 16
- Writing-on-Stone (Aisin’aipi), 177
- Yellow Horn, Eddy, 139
- Yellow Horn, John, 137, 138, 149, 150
- Yellow Old Woman, Herman: and Ben Calf Robe Beaver Bundle, 217
- on Bow Valley, 202
- on committee for provincial government, 145
- on effects of repatriation, 203
- experience of colonialism by, 200–201
- involvement in repatriation, 181
- and Leader’s Medicine Pipe Bundle, 197
- at Pitt Rivers Museum conference, 175
- on PMA advisory committee, 169, 225–26
- reasons for reviving traditions, 201–2
- and repatriation from Medicine Hat Museum, 194–95, 215
- and revival of Iitskinaiksi in Siksika, 184–85, 189–93, 197–200, 207, 209
- on Siksika traditional affairs committee, 148
- on songs of Iitskinaiksi, 204
- speaking to Alberta Museums Association, 200–202
- young people: and Iitskinaiksi in Siksika, 220