Sources to Notes

FOREWORD

xiii “is needless to say,” Hind 1971, Vol.1:357.

CHAPTER 1: THE BUFFALO JUMP

1 “vast and worthless area,” Daniel Webster cited in Morgan 1959:14.
1 “These great Plains appear,” Glover 1962:181.
2 “A dreadful scene of confusion,” Hind 1971, Vol.1:359.

Communal Buffalo Hunting

8 “Now ye manner of their hunting,” Henry Kelsey cited in Ewers 1955:303.
9 “the nucleus for,” Mandelbaum 1979:77.
10 “We have little apprehension,” James 1905, Vol.3:174.
10 “The traveller who shall,” James 1905, Vol.3:174.
10 “The prairie is not congenial,” Morgan 1959:42.
10 “In fact, those Indians,” Harmon 1911:81.
11 “as we are now in the land,” Glover 1962:310.
11 “Here we halted and dined,” Lewis 1966, Vol.2:338.
12 “even now speak with enthusiasm,” Grinnell 1962:230.

Not Just Any Cliff

12 “In some part of its course,” James 1905, Vol.2:281–82.
13 “So much do these people,” Coues 1897, Vol.2:725.
For what makes some sites best suited for a buffalo kill, see Frison 1970 (The Glenrock Buffalo Jump), 1970 (The Kobold Site), 1973, 1987, 1991, 2004.

The Site

14 “Twice I have seen buffalo,” Weasel Tail as told to Ewers 1968:166.
For popular articles describing Head-Smashed-In, see Brink 1986; Darragh 1987; Fagan 1994; Pringle 1988, 1996; Reeves 1983; Reid 2002; Sponholz 1992; Thomas 2000.

The Cliff

16 “On the north we passed,” Lewis 1966, Vol.1:234–35.
18 “not killed or entirely disabled,” Coues 1897, Vol.2:725.

How Long Have Buffalo Jumped?

18 “The usual manner of hunting,” Lieutenant Bradley cited in Ewers 1968:162–63.
For the debate about Bonfire Shelter, see Dibble and Lorrain 1968; Bement 2007; Byerly, Cooper, Meltzer, Hill, and LaBelle 2005, 2007.

Blood on the Rocks: The Story of Head-Smashed-In

For more on the name Head-Smashed-In, see Dawson 1885.

For more references on communal buffalo hunting, the archaeology of other buffalo jumps and Head-Smashed-In, visit www.aupress.ca

CHAPTER 2: THE BUFFALO

27 “The American bison, or…buffalo,” Catlin 1851, Vol.1:247.
27 On Ewers listing the great number of uses of the buffalo, see Ewers 1958:14–15.
29 “The activity of Buffaloes,” Audubon 1960, Vol.2:142–43.
29 “most surprising speed,” Audubon 1960, Vol.2:62.
32 “lumbering awkwardness of his action,” Southesk 1969:85.
32 On the speed of bison, see Lott 2002:41; McHugh 1958:9.
32 “When wounded and mad,” Audubon 1960, Vol.2:144.

Is it Bison or Buffalo?

33 On the various Omaha words for bison hunts, see Fletcher and La Flesche 1972:270–71.
For the types and naming of bison and buffalo, see Lott 2002; McHugh 1972; Reynolds, Gates, and Glaholt 2003.

In Numbers, Numberless

33 “Mr. Kipp told me,” Audubon 1960, Vol.2:146.
35 “that from an eminence,” Lewis 1966, Vol.2:420.
35 “The Buffalo are very numerous,” Fidler 1991:76.
35 “At daybreak I was,” Coues 1897, Vol.1:167.
35 “I will not attempt to,” Pike 1966:161.
35 “it is impossible to describe,” Audubon 1960, Vol.2:146.
36 “The immense quantity we saw,” Dempsey 1977:189.
36 “I am conscious that with many,” Brackenridge 1904:150.
36 “by the vapour which,” Bradbury 1904:124.
36 “deep rolling voice,” Southesk 1969:92.
36 On Audubon saying that chips were so abundant that a person could not step a few feet without coming across one, see Audubon 1960, Vol.2:105. “was soon covered with,” James 1905, Vol.2:315.
36 “was soon covered with,” James 1905, Vol.2:315.
36 “cow-yard,” James 1905, Vol.2:315.
36 “the space they stand on,” Glover 1962:267.
36 “They were in numbers,” Dempsey 1977:189.

Tricks of the Trade

37 “Every spring as the river,” Lewis 1966, Vol.1:175.
37 On Maximilian reporting eighteen-hundred dead bison damming the Missouri River, see Maximilian 1906, Vol.1:382.
37 “The slipperiness of the ice,” Spry 1968:191.
38 “they followed them,” Grinnell 1923, Vol.1:268.
For Maximilian reporting eighteen-hundred dead bison damming the Missouri River, see Maximilian 1906, Vol.1:382.

The Fats of Life

39 “us who had so long,” Farnham 1906, Vol.1:203.
40 “we could not get any,” Spry 1968:316.
40 “Our appetite was tremendous,” Spry 1968:385.
40 “too poor to be worth,” Lewis 1966, Vol.1:161.
40 “so extremely lean” James 1905, Vol.3:103.
40 “In the chase, the experienced,” Gregg 1966, Vol.2:215.
40 “of course every one,” McDougall 1898:224.
40 On Audubon observing that wolves also selected the fattest animals for attack, see Audubon 1960, Vol.2:124.
41 “I think that in cold countries,” Dempsey 1956:12.
41 “but that the stomach,” James 1905, Vol.2:297.
42 “At this time of the year,” Wilson 1924:305.
For more references on evolution and classification of bison, numbers of bison, varieties of buffalo hunting by Plains Indians, and the role and importance of fat in game animals, visit www.aupress.ca.

CHAPTER 3: A YEAR IN THE LIFE

43 “ears were assailed by,” Brackenridge 1904:149.

Calves

44 “The Calves in the Womb,” Fidler 1991:73.
45 “the young calves, cut,” Hearne 1971:253–54.
45 “are equal in flavour,” Lewis 1966, Vol.1:192.

Mothers

45 “The principal beast,” Maximilian 1906, Vol.2:345.

Fathers

49 “meat is not regarded,” Glover 1962:310.
49 “openings are left,” Coues 1897, Vol.2:518.
51 “Our folks have shot,” Harris 1951:22.

Science and the Historic Record

54 “for having aimed at,” Catlin 1851, Vol.1:27.
55 On Farnham riding around a village of Kansa Indians asking them if they were humans or beasts, see Farnham 1906, Vol.1:89–90.
55 “The lovers of Indian manners,” Brackenridge 1904:114.
55 “The world would loose,” Brackenridge 1904:128.
55 “savage, untutored, and heathen,” Hind 1971, Vol.1:359.
56 “brave, steady,” Glover 1962:258.
56 “is more detested,” Glover 1962:259.
56 On Brackenridge complaining that Indians were foul smelling, see Brackenridge 1904: 114.
56 “Indians find the odour,” James 1905, Vol.2:257.
56 “We are aware that,” James 1905, Vol.2:256.
56 “people are all politicians,” Ross 1972:252.
56 Many years have been passed,” De Smet 1906:194.
57 “emerald furnaces,” Southesk 1969:121.
57 “His appearance was now,” Harris 1951:30.
57 “remarkably expert,” Gregg 1966, Vol.2:283.
57 “with an accuracy,” Gregg 1966, Vol.2:283.
57 “a bull, which I left” Palliser 1969:119.
57 “three buffalo,” Coues 1897, Vol.1:170.
57 “too poor to be,” Lewis 1966, Vol.1:161.
57 “had killed two poor Bulls,” Glover 1962:186.
57 “a fine fat cow,” Gregg 1966, Vol.2:148–49.
58 “so weak that if,” Coues 1897, Vol.2:594.
58 “if possible, to pick out,” Palliser 1969:226.
58 “a tolerably fat young bull,” Coues 1897, Vol.1:178.
58 “got alongside of the cows,” Palliser 1969:227–28.
58 “June the bulls,” Morgan 1959:104.
58 “well-larded body,” Farnham 1906, Vol.1:88.
58 “At this time of the year,” Larpenteur 1898, Vol.1:21.
58 “We killed a bull,” Coues 1897, Vol.1:310.
58 “bulls are beginning to get,” Coues 1897, Vol.2:609.
58 “In the month of July,” Glover 1962:305.
58 “Saw … six bulls,” Audubon 1960, Vol.2:157.
58 “Saw Buffaloes,” Audubon 1960, Vol.2:159.
58 “bison…was killed,” James 1905, Vol.3:130–31.
58 “The Cows were fat,” Glover 1962:54.
59 “I killed a Bull Buffalo,” Henday 1973:26.
59 “I found them only,” Coues 1897, Vol.2:490.
59 “Each of us soon killed,” Coues 1897, Vol.2:492.
59 “I returned at sunset,” Coues 1897, Vol.1:100.
59 “old out-straggling,” Palliser 1969:107–08.
59 “Saw a few Bull Buffalo,” Fidler 1991:14.
59 “Men running buffalo,” Fidler 1991:27.
59 “My people killed,” Coues 1897, Vol.1:161.
59 “flesh is not desirable,” Kane 1996:267–68.
59 “four Bulls, no Cows,” Glover 1962:167.

The Seasonal Round

63 “the buffalo in winter,” Spry 1968:266.

The Season of Buffalo Jumping

65 “The Savages observe,” Hennepin 1903, Vol.2:516.
67 “These [bulls] are generally,” Gregg 1966, Vol.2:212.
67 “The cold was so severe,” Dempsey 1977:49.
68 On seasonal changes in fat composition of Arctic reindeer, see Reimers, Ringberg, and Sørumgård 1982.
69 “are therefore killed,” Harmon 1911:285.
69 “The Indians generally kill,” Catlin 1851, Vol.1:254.
69 “I am informed by,” Bradbury 1904:186.
69 “the Indians had certain spots,” S.A. Barrett cited in Ewers 1968:163–64.
For more references on bison ecology, natural history, biology, calving patterns, female reproduction, fat cycles in pregnancy and lactation, the rut and fat cycles in male bison, bioenergetic principles in large herbivores, and the bison seasonal round, visit www.aupress.ca.

CHAPTER 4: THE KILLING FIELDS

71 “The Great Father of Life,” Schoolcraft 1851, Vol.5:50.

Finding Bison

73 “The Indians who reside,” Harmon 1911:331.
For George Frison’s knowledge of bison hunting, see Frison 1987, 2004.

Drive Lanes

75 “From this entrance,” Mathew Cocking cited in Ewers 1968:161.
81 “The most exciting phrase,” Singh 2004:357.

Points in Time

For more on arrowheads found among the drive lanes at buffalo jumps in Idaho see Agenbroad 1976:6–9.

Ancient Knowledge

85 “It may truly be said,” Hind 1971, Vol.2:104.
86 On Hind reporting 240 bison killed in a pound over several days, see Hind 1971, Vol.1:357.
86 On Father De Smet having witnessed six hundred bison brought in, see Lowie 1909:11.
86 “Pound being quite,” Fidler 1991:58.
86 “Passed near an old,” Dempsey 1977:78.
87 On the use of rocks at the Ramillies archaeological site, see Brumley 1976.
88 On the methods of corralling bison herds at Elk Island National Park, personal communication from Norm Cool, wildlife biologist, EINP.
88 “In the olden time,” Grinnell 1923, Vol.1:264–65.
88 “on a slope,” Spry 1968:197.
88 “might be only a fence,” Grinnell 1962:229.
88 “so full does [the pound] become,” Audubon 1960, Vol.2:146.
88 “When it [the pound] was full,” Grinnell 1962:231.
89 “with the utmost silence,” Hind 1971, Vol.1:358.
89 “wary old bull,” Hind 1971, Vol.1:357.
89 “All around the corral,” Weasel Tail as told to Ewers 1968:166.

Back to the Drive Lanes

91 “On each side of,” Coues 1897, Vol.2:518–19.
96 “a tract is surrounded,” Maximilian 1906, Vol.1:390.
96 On Mathew Cocking noting that the wings of the drive lane were made of sticks, with heaps of buffalo dung or old roots, see Ewers 1968:161.
96 “To this entrance,” Spry 1968:197.
96 “From each side,” Harmon 1911:286.
For historic and ethnographic descriptions of drive lanes, see Ewers 1968:161; Flannery 1953:56; Grinnell 1962:229–30; Harmon 1911:285–87; Hind 1971, Vol.1:357–58; Maximilian 1906, Vol.1:390; Spry 1968:197.

Deadmen

97 “was formed in a pretty dell,” Hind 1971, Vol.1:357–58.
99 “Indians are stationed,” Harmon 1911:286.
99 “Finally, when the buffalo,” Grinnell 1962:229.
For the specific use of the term “Dead Men,” see Hind 1971, Vol.1:357–58; Kane 1996:80.

In Small Things Forgotten

For the book In Small Things Forgotten, see Deetz 1977.

For more references on the nature and operation of drive lanes, the analysis of projectile points from the Plains, and historic and ethnographic accounts of buffalo pounds and jumps, visit www.aupress.ca

CHAPTER 5: ROUNDING UP

103 “When buffalo were needed,” Mandelbaum 1979:54.

The Spirit Sings

105 “There is nothing relating,” Bradbury 1904:177.
106 On archaeologists finding skulls placed in the fork of trees, see Frison 1991:254, 256.
106 “The life of the people,” Fletcher and La Flesche 1972:271.
107 “every man … brings out of his lodge,” Catlin 1851, Vol.1:127.
107 “Once the people could not find,” Lowie 1922:355.
107 “carried with it,” Mandelbaum 1979:177.
107 “the privilege of constructing,” Mandelbaum 1979:177.
108 “Some shamans called,” Lowie (Religion of the Crow) 1922:357.
109 “grave responsibility,” Fletcher and La Flesche 1972:276.
109 “possess courage and ability,” Fletcher and La Flesche 1972:276.
109 “He directed the march,” Fletcher and La Flesche 1972:276.
109 “considered one of the most,” Fletcher and La Flesche 1972:276.
109 “for on him all the people,” Fletcher and La Flesche 1972:278.
109 “a man’s hand,” Fletcher and La Flesche 1972:281.
109 “those who look,” Fletcher and La Flesche 1972:280.
109 “Come! that you may go,” Fletcher and La Flesche 1972:280.
109 “It is reported,” Fletcher and La Flesche 1972:280.
110 “dodging in and out,” Fletcher and La Flesche 1972:282.
110 “a sacred one,” Fletcher and La Flesche 1972:283.
110 “unrolled his pipe,” Grinnell 1962:229.
110 “told his wives,” Grinnell 1962:229.
111 “I saw a collection,” Spry 1968:198.
111 “on which they hang,” Spry 1968:198.
111 On archaeologists having excavated bison kill sites that show evidence for a central wooden pole with unusual artifacts around the pole base, see Stanford 1978.
111 “who had a wonderful,” Southesk 1969:104.
111 “the pipe-bearer,” James 1905, Vol.1:298.
112 “Before the carcasses,” Mandelbaum 1979:55.
112 “the warriors are all assembled,” Audubon 1960, Vol.2:145.
113 “so that they might,” Mandelbaum 1979:58.
113 On the Omaha saving fat from around the heart of the buffalo for young children, see Fletcher and La Flesche 1972:332.
113 “Many of the Minnetarees,” James 1905, Vol.2:63.
113 “In one of their villages,” Maximilian 1906, Vol.2:375.
113 “there were formerly to,” Grinnell 1923, Vol.1:268.
113 “We had been hunting,” Glover 1962:259.
For more on magpies, see Grinnell 1923, Vol.1:256; stones sacred, see Densmore 1918:204–05; turtle hearts, see Fletcher and La Flesche 1972:332; fire flies, see Spry 1968:242; swallows and bluebirds pecking, see Dempsey 1973; rattles from snakes, see McDermott 1940:208; stuffed eagle in lodge, see Fidler 1991:65; eagle feathers as sacred, see Fletcher and La Flesche 1972:276; Lewis 1966, Vol.2:386; offerings in trees, see Glover 1962:259; Maximilian 1906, Vol.2:375; bears sacred, see Schoolcraft 1966:184–85; won’t eat bears, see Maximilian 1906, Vol.2:109; Wissler 1910:20; grizzly bear necklaces, see Glover 1962:249; James 1905, Vol.3:46; Kane 1996:266; use of weasel hides, see Ewers 1968:165.

The Nose of the Buffalo

114 “During our stay here,” Bradbury 1904:149–50.
114 “provided he ‘has the wind,’” Gregg 1966, Vol.2:217–18.
115 “it informed them of,” James 1905, Vol.3:228.
115 “The wind happening to blow,” James 1905, Vol.2:255–56.
115 “the wind was still,” Coues 1897, Vol.2:577.
115 “it is most favorable,” Coues 1897, Vol.2:519.
116 “Saw a good deal,” Spry 1968:412.
116 “Great numbers of wolves,” Brackenridge 1904:135.
116 “counted fifteen wolves,” Bradbury 1904:150.
117 “they saw him several,” James 1905, Vol.3:76.
117 “the herd of buffaloes,” Catlin 1851, Vol.1:254.
117 “As is frequently the case,” Kane 1996:82.
117 “perfectly aware that,” Spry 1968:258.
117 On Fidler saying Indians intentionally let wolves feed on discarded carcasses, see Fidler 1991:64.
For the importance of wind in hunting buffalo, see Bradbury 1904:149–50; Gregg 1966, Vol.2:217–18; James 1905, Vol.2:255–56, Vol.3:228.

Fire this Time

117 “The grass of these plains,” Glover 1962:181.
118 “When the fire passes,” Harmon 1911:90.
118 “a sight the poor burnt,” Dempsey 1977:260.
118 “set fire to the plains,” James 1905, Vol.2:167.
118 “the fresh grass which,” Lewis 1966, Vol.1:175.
118 “Along the Great Plains,” Glover 1962:185–86.
119 “The most trivial signal,” Spry 1968:254–55.
119 “setting fire to the grass,” Schoolcraft 1966:279.
120 “driving whole herds from,” Coues 1897, Vol.2:577.
121 “strikes a light with,” Kane 1996:80.
121 “the herd must be,” Coues 1897, Vol.2:519.
For bison killed in prairie fires, see Dempsey 1977:260; Harmon 1911:90.

Luring the Buffalo

121 “generally drive,” Coues 1897, Vol.2:519.
122 “The antelope possesses,” James 1905, Vol.2:227.
122 “A man who was very,” Grinnell 1962:230.
123 “consisted in crawling,” Kane 1996:268.
For antelope curiosity, see James 1905, Vol.2:227.
For bison curiosity, see Dodge 1959 (The Plains of the Great West):136.
For twirling and running to attract bison, see Grinnell 1962:230.

Buffalo Runners

124 “men consulted the leaders,” Densmore 1918:439.
125 On Catlin reporting that the Sioux hid themselves “under buffalo skins,” to trick their enemies, see Catlin 1851, Vol.1:130.
125 “following about in the vicinity,” Catlin 1851, Vol.1:254.
128 “The mode of hunting,” Lewis 1966, Vol.1:235.
128 “A gang of buffalo is frightened,” Gregg 1966, Vol.2:217.
128 “bellowing like themselves,” Henry 1969:300.
129 “At day-light, several,” Henry 1969:300.
For more on Buffalo Runners, see Audubon 1960, Vol.2:145; Catlin 1851, Vol.1:254; Densmore 1918:439; Gregg 1966, Vol.2:217; Lewis 1966, Vol.1:234–35; Schoolcraft 1851, Vol.4:93.

Lost Calves

129 “all is ready,” Audubon 1960, Vol.2:145.
130 “imitating the lowing,” Dempsey 1989:115.
130 “This ruse is generally performed,” Kane 1996:267.
131 “I had hoped to witness,” Dempsey 1977:49.
131 “Their chief announced,” Ewers 1958:83.
131 On Woolsey saying that a man might lure bison by imitating the sound of a cow bison for up to two days, see Dempsey 1989:115.
132 “carrying before them everything,” Coues 1897, Vol.2:725.
132 “lives are sometimes lost,” Coues 1897, Vol.2:725.
133 “Sometimes in this perilous,” Lewis 1966, Vol.1:235.
133 “suddenly securing himself,” Lewis 1966, Vol.1:235.
133 “would run forward,” Flannery 1953:56.
134 “When the old men,” Grinnell 1923, Vol.1:267.
For the use of the buffalo calf disguise, see Audubon 1960, Vol.2:145; Kane 1996:267.

Billy’s Stories

136 On a comparison of early twentieth century Blackfoot stories in English and Blackfoot, see Uhlenbeck 1911.
137 “In winter, when the snow,” Grinnell 1962:231–32.

The End of the Drive

137 “the buffalo appear,” Hind 1971, Vol.1:358.
138 “A man stood,” Ewers 1968:167.
139 “every man, woman, and child,” Coues 1897, Vol.2:519.
139 “Young men are usually,” Coues 1897, Vol.2:519.
139 “they are in a manner,” Coues 1897, Vol.2:520.
For people along the drive lanes and methods of controlling the bison, see Ewers 1968:166–67; Grinnell 1923, Vol.1: 267; Hind 1971, Vol.1:358; Lowie 1922 (Religion of the Crow):357.

Of Illusions, Pickup Trucks, and Curves in the Road

143 “a long [downhill] slope,” Harris 1951:34.
143 “We built a corral,” Ewers 1968:166.
143 On bison increasing their speed running downhill, see McHugh 1958:9.
145 “The chute took,” Mandelbaum 1979:54.
145 On curves in buffalo drives, see Mandelbaum 1979:54.
For more references on buffalo hunt ceremonies, ceremonial use of skills, sacred parts of the carcass, wolves and bison, grizzly bears and bison, use of fire by Aboriginal people, bison aversion to smoke, visit www.aupress.ca.

CHAPTER 6: THE GREAT KILL

147 “poor affrighted,” Catlin 1851, Vol.1:200.
148 “Still their advance,” Gregg 1966, Vol.2:220.
148 “Late in the evening,” Brackenridge 1904:150.
148 “were in such numbers,” Spry 1968:258.

Leap of Faith

149 “A dreadful scene,” Hind 1971, Vol.1:359.
151 “Be a bison,” Lott 2002:158.
152 “it is then in vain,” Lewis 1966, Vol.1:235.
153 “A sight most horrible,” Hind 1971, Vol.1:356.
153 “the bawling and screaming,” Spry 1968:197.
153 “The scene was more repulsive,” Spry 1968:197.
153 “crammed more than,” Spry 1968:197.
153 “A great number were,” Spry 1968:197.
153 “run round and round,” Spry 1968:197.
153 “with the sun,” Spry 1968:197.
153 “I have frequently,” Harmon 1911:286.
153 “Indians, even mere boys,” Spry 1968:197.
153 “all busy plying bows,” Spry 1968:197.
154 “After firing their arrows,” Spry 1968:197.

Overkill?

155 “Nothing of the buffalo,” Flannery 1953:58.
155 “The savages wage,” McDermott 1940:196–97.
157 “ashamed,” Harris 1951:34.
157 “regretted,” Harris 1951:149.
157 “had no means,” Harris 1951:149.
157 “temptation was,” Harris 1951:152.
157 “ere long our consciences,” Harris 1951:34–35.
157 “What a terrible destruction,” Audubon 1960, Vol.2:107.
157 “one of the whole herd,” Coues 1897, Vol.1:336.
157 “prevent them [the skulls] from apprising,” Bradbury 1904:141.
157 “They could easily shoot,” Dempsey 1989:116.
158 “The scene was a busy,” Spry 1968:197.
158 “rushing off in a contrary,” Dempsey 1977:49.
158 “It happens sometimes,” Audubon 1960, Vol.2:146.
159 “But this method sometimes,” Coues 1897, Vol.2:725.
For two provocative and important works on this subject, see Krech 1999 and Harkin and Lewis 2007.

Drop of Death

161 “Whilst the buffaloes were,” Kane 1996:81.
162 “fired both barrels of my gun,” Southesk 1969:80.
162 “vomits torrents of blood,” McDermott 1940:192.
163 “are to the last directed,” James 1905, Vol.3:145.
163 “trampled and gored to death,” Audubon 1960, Vol.2:144.
163 “will run their horns into,” Fidler 1991:74.
163 “narrowly escape,” Fidler 1991:74.
For more on the numbers of buffalo killed at pounds and jumps, see Catlin 1851, Vol.1:199–201; Fidler 1991:58; Harmon 1911:70, 285–87; Henry 1969:301; Hind 1971, Vol.1: 357; Maximilian 1906, Vol.1:390.
For full eyewitness descriptions of killing bison at pounds, see Harmon 1911:285–87; Hind 1971, Vol.1:359; Spry 1968:197–98.

Bones on Fire

164 “The surrounding country,” Harmon 1911:90.
165 “There was no wood,” Maximilian 1906, Vol.2:196.
165 “On wet days,” Mandelbaum 1979:93.
166 “when the Wind,” Fidler 1991:58–59.
166 “It is needless to say,” Hind 1971, Vol.1:357.
166 On the Assiniboine leaving openings in the pound for dogs, see Coues 1897, Vol.2:518.
166 On Catlin reporting one thousand dogs cleaning up the carcasses at a bison pound, see Catlin 1851, Vol.1:201.
166 On the effects of mass carcass decay, see Todd 1983.
166 “on account of the stench,” Hind 1971, Vol.1:355.
For the debate about burned layers of bones at bison kill sites, see Frison 1970:6; 1991:231.
For Kehoe’s arguments about burning at the Gull Lake site, see Kehoe 1973:39.
For the stench of buffalo kill sites, see Fidler 1991:86; Hind 1971, Vol.1:355, 357; Lewis 1966, Vol.1:235.

Let the Butchering Begin

168 “The process of cutting up,” Harris 1951:36.
169 “Here I observed the filthy manners,” Coues 1897, Vol.1:397.
169 “which we are accustomed,” Lewis 1966, Vol.1:376.
169 “A hearty meal,” Denig 1930:531.
169 “betakes himself to what is,” Dodge 1959 (Our Wild Indians):276.
169 “and while still warm,” Wilson 1924:252.
170 On hunters having arrows marked with personal designs, see Fletcher and La Flesche 1972:272.
170 “among the people,” Grinnell 1962:230.
170 “the chiefs and the leading,” Grinnell 1962:230.
170 On Lowie reporting that the buffalo runners among the Assiniboine received the fattest animals, see Lowie 1909:11.
170 On Henry (the elder) saying that chiefs were given the tongues, see Henry 1969:301.
“gives each tent an equal share,” Coues 1897, Vol.2:520.
171 “no one will complain,” Harmon 1911:287.
171 “any be displeased,” Harmon 1911:287.
For Henry (the elder) saying that chiefs were given the tongues, see Henry 1969:301.

Bison Hide as Insulator

171 “The skin is in some places,” Hearne 1971:251.
172 On Audubon telling of a Native hunter who approached a buffalo carcass to discover a grizzly bear inside, see Audubon 1960, Vol.2:65–66.
For the insulation of a bison hide, see Lott 2002:53–56.
For the neck portion of bison hide used as shields, see Grinnell 1962:227; Hearne 1971:251.
For more on the metabolism study at Elk Island Park, see Christopherson, Hudson, and Richmond 1978.
For more and finer hair on bison than cattle, see Lott 2002:55; Peters and Slen 1964.
For the use of infrared at Elk Island Park, see Lott 2002:55.

Back to the Assembly Line

175 “These animals spoil,” Dodge 1959 (Our Wild Indians):253.
177 “Well do I remember,” Palliser 1969:174–75.
177 “But what the tail of the beaver,” Gregg 1966, Vol.2:212.
177 “is most extraordinary,” Hearne 1971:253–54.
177 “In the operation of butchering,” James 1905, Vol.1:300.
177 “It was no small matter,” Hennepin 1903, Vol.2:520–21.
177 “The Natives generally cut,” Harmon 1911:287.
For the fat content of bison tongue, see Emerson 1990.
For more references on numbers of bison killed in pounds, eyewitness descriptions of pounds, the butchering of sequence of bison, visit www.aupress.ca.

CHAPTER 7: COOKING UP THE SPOILS

179 “The buffalo meat which the hunter,” Gregg 1966, Vol.2:26.
179 “made for the purpose,” Dodge 1959 (Our Wild Indians):287.

The Processing Site

180 “inordinate thirst,” Schoolcraft 1851, Vol.4:106.
181 “the suffering is,” Schoolcraft 1851, Vol.4:106.
181 “the means taken,” Schoolcraft 1851, Vol.4:106.
181 “When there is no water,” Harmon 1911:279.
181 “is always water,” Spry 1968:187.
182 “converge from all directions,” James 1905, Vol.3:143.
For the Vore site in Wyoming, see Reher and Frison 1980.

Day Fades to Night

184 “At the time of the,” Dodge 1959 (Our Wild Indians):253.
184 “She must work,” Dodge 1959 (Our Wild Indians):253.
184 “The life an Indian woman,” McDougall 1898:12.
184 “throng of women and children,” Catlin 1851, Vol.1:201.

Dried Goods

185 “Some meat was eaten,” Turney-High 1941:37.
185 “Meat intended for winter use,” Teit 1930:94.
185 “cut into broad,” McDougall 1898:221–22.
187 “made a fire,” McDougall 1898:222.
187 “The meat, with the exception,” James 1905, Vol.1:301.
188 “Fat from shoulder and rump,’ Mandelbaum 1979:58–59.
188 “The meat, in its dried state,” James 1905, Vol.1:302.
188 “sixty or seventy pounds weight,” Schoolcraft 1851, Vol.4:107.

Grease is the Word

188 “The large bones of the hind legs,” Dodge 1959 (Our Wild Indians):273–74.
189 “a most delicious repast,” James 1905, Vol.1:302.
189 “a treat whose value,” James 1905, Vol.3:134.
189 “We cut the tough outer flesh,” Wilson 1924:268.
189 “trapper’s butter,” Farnham 1906, Vol.1:202.
189 “till the mass became,” Farnham 1906, Vol.1:202–03.

High Plains Cooking

191 “They make marrow fat,” Harmon 1911:282.

Buffalo Chips

198 “Since leaving Pembina River,” Spry 1968:110.
198 “so abundant that one meets,” Audubon 1960, Vol.2:105.
198 “is amusing to witness,” Gregg 1966, Vol.2:26.
198 On Harris wondering what friends back home would say if they could see him and Audubon carrying buffalo chips, see Harris 1951:167–68.
198 “produces an ardent,” Schoolcraft 1851, Vol.4:109.
198 “makes a grand fire,” Turnbull 1914:167.
198 “In dry weather it is,” Gregg 1966, Vol.2:26.
198 “but when moistened, Gregg 1966, Vol.2:26.
199 “we had to use dried bison dung,” McDermott 1940:188.
200 “endeavoured to kindle a fire,” Maximilian 1906, Vol.2:196.
200 “even makes a hotter fire,” Gregg 1966, Vol.2:26.

Hot Rocks

200 “An old method of preparing,” Mandelbaum 1979:59.

Time for a Roast

206 “The Indian is a great epicure,” Dodge 1959 (Our Wild Indians):273.
207 “Spits were put up everywhere,” McDermott 1940:194.
210 “Cooked for dinner,” James 1905, Vol.1:279–80.
210 On roasting pits dug inside the tipi, see Mandelbaum 1979:59.

Where Are the Skulls?

211 “Round an isolated tree,” Maximilian 1906, Vol.1:318.
214 On Densmore describing how a medicine man from the Teton Sioux painted a buffalo skull and placed it on a bed of prairie sage, see Densmore 1918:444.
214 “It was believed,” Densmore 1918:444.
214 “on the top of which is placed,” Maximilian 1906, Vol.1:383.
214 “it was an honour,” Bradbury 1904:141.
214 “hang a fresh buffalo’s head,” Farnham 1906, Vol.1:268.
214 “The buffalo skulls,” Maximilian 1906, Vol.2:333–34.
215 “are obliged to drag,” Maximilian 1906, Vol.2:332.
215 “with much pain,” Maximilian 1906, Vol.2:333.
215 “a semicircular row of sixteen bison skulls,” James 1905, Vol.2:253.
215 “Our interpreter informed us,” James 1905, Vol.2:253.
For how skulls were used in ceremonies, see Bradbury 1904:141; Densmore 1918:444; Farnham 1906, Vol.1:268–69; Grinnell 1923, Vol.1:268; James 1905, Vol.2:253; Lowie 1922 (Religion of the Crow):355, 357; Mandelbaum 1979:54; Maximilian 1906, Vol.1:318, 383; Vol.2:333–34, 375.

Packing Up, Among the Bears

216 “We had not left the fort,” Kane 1996:266.
217 “when he saw a bear,” Palliser 1969:281.
217 “and leaving the carcass,” James 1905, Vol.3:50.
218 “soldiers saw him,” Audubon 1960, Vol.2:66.
218 “without doubt, the most daring,” James 1905, Vol.3:47.
218 “frequently pursues,” James 1905, Vol.3:47.
218 “nearly dragged one of the hunters,” Dempsey 1989:115.
219 On Thompson recounting a grizzly bear attack on natives, see Glover 1962:248–49.
219 “the death cry,” Glover 1962:248.
219 “one of his thighs,” Glover 1962:248.
219 “sprung on the first,” Glover 1962:249.
219 “They found him devouring,” Glover 1962:248.
219 “The first poor fellow,” Glover 1962:249.
219 “one of the most esteemed,” Kane 1996:266.
219 “highly esteemed, and dignify,” James 1905, Vol.3:46.
219 On the recovery of a set of grizzly bear foreclaws from an Alberta archaeological site, see Brink 1988.
219 “until nothing but,” Glover 1962:249.
219 “devouring a dead buffaloe,” Lewis 1966, Vol.2:394.
For historic encounters with the Plains grizzly bear, see Glover 1962:248–49; James 1905, Vol.3:46–47; Kane 1996:266; Lewis 1966, Vol.2:394; Palliser 1969:281–82; Spry 1968: 412, 414–15.
For more references on historic and archaeological accounts of bison butchering, foods consumed at the kill, foods preserved by drying and smoking, desire for and use of bone marrow and grease, Aboriginal cooking methods, cooking experiments at Head-Smashed-In, use and abundance of buffalo chips, stone building and roasting, use of brains in tanning and bison skulls rare at other sites, visit www.aupress.ca.

CHAPTER 8: GOING HOME

221 On Father Hennepin remarking on the strength of Native women, see Hennepin 1903, Vol.1:147.
For Napi stories in Blackfoot culture, see De Smet 1906:243–44; Ewers 1958; Grinnell 1962; McClintock 1968:337–48.

Buffalo Hides

224 “Whilst in the green state,” James 1905, Vol.1:312.
224 “They had Shields,” Glover 1962:173.
225 “In buffalo robes,” Southesk 1969:307.
226 “The hide is extended,” James 1905, Vol.1:312.
227 “for the convenience of manipulation,” James 1905, Vol.1:312.
227 “They then take it out,” Harmon 1911:288.
227 On Culbertson noting that meat and fat scraped from the buffalo hide were cooked, mixed with dried berries, and eaten, see Culbertson 1952:84.
227 “esteemed a most rare dish,” Culbertson 1952:84.
227 “The hide of the buffalo-bull,” Grinnell 1923, Vol.1:255–56.
227 “had been 18 days,” Dempsey 1977:94.
227 On Bradbury’s team having to eat their moccasin soles, see Bradbury 1904:232.

Pemmican

229 “As the Indians use no salt,” Harmon 1911:282.
229 “as they incline to migrate,” Gregg 1966, Vol.2:214.
229 “immense herds of bisons,” James 1905, Vol.2:239.
229 “upon all the plain,” James 1905, Vol.2:239.
230 “In making this pemmican,” Turney-High 1941:38.
230 “when carefully melted,” Glover 1962:312.
231 “A much finer grade,” Grinnell 1962:207.
231 “a trough made of,” Grinnell 1962:206.
232 “about thirty inches,” Glover 1962:312.
233 “shovelled into one,” Grinnell 1962:206.
233 “When the bag was full,” Grinnell 1962:206.
233 “If kept in a dry place,” Harmon 1911:23.
233 “the staple food,” Glover 1962:313.
233 On Audubon saying that men on the barges subsist almost entirely on buffalo meat and pemmican, see Audubon 1960, Vol.1:499.
233 On Stefansson’s experiments with eating an all meat diet, see Lieb 1926.
234 On Catlin’s first kill of the largest bull, see Catlin 1851, Vol.1:27.

Snow Falling on Cottonwoods

235 “The beauty of an Indian camp,” Fletcher and La Flesche 1972:279.
For more references on methods of tanning and seasonal use of bison hides, pemmican (making, taste, ingredients, longevity), tannic acids as preservatives, visit www.aupress.ca.

CHAPTER 9: THE END OF THE BUFFALO HUNT

237 “It is truly a melancholy,” Catlin 1851, Vol.1:256.
237 “The air was foul with,” Dodge 1959 (Our Wild Indians):295.
238 “saw two bull buffalo,” Morgan 1959:159.
238 “on getting on board,” Harris 1951:95.
238 On an example of the senseless slaughter of bison, see Harris 1951:30–31.
238 “would jump aside,” Harris 1951:30.
238 “He proved to be very poor,” Harris 1951:31.

The Skin of the Animal

239 “The danger from Indians,” Dodge 1959 (Our Wild Indians):293.
240 On Dodge’s estimates of bison hides and pounds of meat and bones hauled from the west by train for the years 1872–74, see Dodge 1959 (The Plains of the Great West):140.
240 “at least five millions,” Dodge 1959 (Our Wild Indians):295.
240 “They are usually,” James 1905, Vol.1:174.
242 “It is at this time,” Morgan 1959:104.
242 On accounts of buffalo derailing trains, see Dodge 1959 (The Plains of the Great West):121–22.
243 On the effects of disease on Native people of the Plains, see Binnema 2001:119–28; Isenberg 2000:53–62, 113–20.
244 “In winter, there are,” McDermott 1940:197.
244 “It is impossible to make,” McDermott 1940:197.
244 “man in his savage,” Hind 1971, Vol.1:359.
244 “I am almost ashamed,” Harris 1951:34.
244 “We now regretted,” Harris 1951:149.
244 “It would be highly desirable,” James 1905, Vol.2:256–57.
245 “They left nothing behind,” Grinnell 1923, Vol.1:266.
245 “They keep the Hoofs,” Hennepin 1903, Vol.1:150.

The Last of the Buffalo Jumps

247 “The arms of the wild Indians,” Gregg 1966, Vol.2:283.
247 On Pike putting nineteen balls into a bison, see Pike 1966:155.
247 “Big Ribs, a Northern Cheyenne,” Grinnell 1923, Vol.1:263–64.
248 “White Cloud says,” Morgan 1959:99.
248 “An arrow kills more efficiently,” McDermott 1940:192.
248 “If the arrow has not,” McDermott 1940:192.
248 “the Indian is apt to kill,” Gregg 1966, Vol.2:216.
249 “They heard the Report,” Hennepin 1903, Vol.2:520.
249 “Sometimes the young men,” Harmon 1911:285.

Rivers of Bones

251 “far as the eye,” Maximilian 1906, Vol.2:50.
251 “The land was covered,” McDermott 1940:188.
251 “Buffalo Bones, & dung laying,” Turnbull 1914:167.
251 “bones and skulls, scattered,” Maximilian 1906, Vol.2:246.
252 “constantly finding the skulls,” Southesk 1969:58.
252 “The plains are all strewn,” Southesk 1969:254–55.
252 “and before many years,” Audubon 1960, Vol.2:131.
252 “I fear we shall soon be deprived,” Schoolcraft 1851, Vol.5:50.
253 “real food,” Flannery 1953:58.
253 “To those who had been,” Flannery 1953:58.
253 “There is no earthly consideration,” Ross 1972:260–61.
253 “The buffalo melted away,” Dodge 1959 (Our Wild Indians):294.

Final Abandonment of Head-Smashed-In

254 On Fidler’s early written records of native life in the Canadian west, see Fidler 1991.
254 On Fidler’s accounts of driving bison to a cliff, see Fidler 1991:36.
254 On Lewis and Clark seeing the carcasses from previous jumps, see Lewis 1966, Vol.1:234–35.
254 On James describing how jumps worked based on Native informants, see James 1905, Vol.2:281–82.
255 “Where we encamped yesterday,” Fidler 1991:36.
255 “the men brought another,” Fidler 1991:36.
255 “Horses are sometimes used,” Coues 1897, Vol.2:520.
255 “After this preparation,” Harmon 1911:286.
For an Aboriginal narrative of what must have been one of the last buffalo jumps, somewhere near Head-Smashed-In, see Ewers 1949; 1968:166–67.
For more references on the near extermination of bison, changes in Plains culture due to horses, accounts of the prairies littered with bones, visit www.aupress.ca.

CHAPTER 10: THE PAST BECOMES THE PRESENT

277 On the work done by Joe Crowshoe and Roger McDonnell, see McDonnell 1984.
For articles on the development of Head-Smashed-In Buffalo Jump, see Brink 1992, 1996; Cannon and Cannon 1996; Johns 1988; Johns and Le Blond 1989; Sponholz 1992.
For more on the involvement of the Blackfoot people in the development of the interpretive centre, see Brink 1992; Slater 2006.
For the architecture of the Head-Smashed-In Interpretive Centre, see Johns 1988; Johns and LeBlond 1989.
For more references on archaeological studies of Head-Smashed-In and other buffalo jumps, general Plains archaeology and buffalo hunting, and Plains Indians, visit www.aupress.ca.

References Cited