Notes

FOREWORD

1. 1. National Academy of Sciences, International Summit on Human Gene Editing: A Global Discussion–Meeting in Brief, December 1–3, 2015, 6–7. Washington, DC: National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 2016. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK343651/.
2. 2. David Baltimore, opening remarks, quoted in National Academy of Sciences, International Summit on Human Gene Editing, 6.
3. 3. Guel A. Russell, “Eugenics: A Paradigm for the Future?,” in The Proceedings of the 22nd Annual History of Medicine Days Conference at the University of Calgary, Alberta, Canada, ed. Aleksandra Loewenau, William J. Pratt, and Frank W. Stahnisch (Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2013), 114–48.
4. 4. Francis Galton, Hereditary Genius: An Inquiry into Its Laws and Consequences (London: Macmillan, 1869), 28; Galton, “The Possible Improvement of the Human Breed under the Existing Conditions of Law and Sentiment (1905),” in Essays in Eugenics, ed. Eugenics Education Society (London: Eugenics Education Society, 1905), 1–34, esp. 1.
5. 5. Daniel Kevles, In the Name of Eugenics (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1985), 5–6.
6. 6. Henry J. Muller, “The Dominance of Economics over Eugenics,” in A Decade of Progress in Eugenics: Scientific Papers of the Third International Congress of Eugenics (Baltimore: William & Wilkins, 1933), 142–44.
7. 7. Muller, “Dominance of Economics,” 144–45.
8. 8. Jan A. Inglis and John R. Inglis, eds. Davenport’s Dream: 21st Century Reflections on Heredity and Eugenics (Cold Spring Harbor, NY: Cold Spring Laboratory Press, 2008), 15–16. Includes a reprint of Charles Davenport’s Heredity in Relation to Eugenics (1911).
9. 9. Kevles, In the Name of Eugenics, 3–4.
10. 10. Stephen J. Gould, The Mismeasure of Man, rev ed. (New York: Norton, 1996), 10.
11. 11. Gould, Mismeasure of Man, 10.
12. 12. Gould, Mismeasure of Man, 24–25.
13. 13. See in Michael Shermer, The Moral Arc (New York: Henry Holt, 2015), 3.

PROLOGUE

1. 1. Robert A. Wilson, The Eugenic Mind Project (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2018); Wilson, “Eugenic Thinking,” Philosophy, Theory, and Practice in Biology 10, no. 12 (2018): 1–8; Wilson, “Eugenics Never Went Away,” Aeon Magazine, June 5, 2018, https://aeon.co/essays/eugenics-today-where-eugenic-sterilisation-continues-now; Wilson, “Contemporary Forms of Eugenics,” eLS Wiley Online, September 15, 2018, https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470015902.a0027075; Wilson, “The Role of Oral History in Surviving a Eugenic Past,” in Beyond Testimony and Trauma: Oral History in the Aftermath of Mass Violence, ed. Steven High (Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 2015), 119–38; Robert A. Wilson and Joshua St. Pierre, “Eugenics and Disability,” in Rethinking Disability: World Perspectives in Culture and Society, ed. Patrick Devlieger, Beatriz Miranda-Galarza, Steven E. Brown, and Megan Strickfaden (Antwerp: Garant, 2016), 93–112; and Matthew J. Barker and Robert A. Wilson, “Well-Being, Disability, and Choosing Children,” Mind 128, no. 510 (2019): 305–28.
2. 2. Daniel Kevles, In the Name of Eugenics (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1985); Paul Lombardo, Three Generations, No Imbeciles: Eugenics, the Supreme Court, and Buck v. Bell (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2008).
3. 3. Alison Bashford and Philippa Levine, eds., The Oxford Handbook of the History of Eugenics (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010); Gregor Wolbring, ed., “What Sorts of People Should There Be?,” special issue, International Journal of Disability, Community, and Rehabilitation 12, no. 2 (2013); Erika Dyck, ed., “The History of Eugenics Revisited,” special issue, Canadian Bulletin of Medical History 31, no. 1 (2014); Paul Lombardo, ed., A Century of Eugenics in America: From the Indiana Experiment to the Human Genome Era (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2011); Randell Hansen and Desmond King, Sterilized by the State: Eugenics, Race, and the Population Scare in Twentieth-Century North America (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2013); Jane Harris-Zsovan, Eugenics and the Firewall: Why Alberta’s UFA/Social Credit Legacy Matters to 21st Century Canadians (Winnipeg: J. Gordon Shillingford, 2010); Erika Dyck, Facing Eugenics: Reproduction, Sterilization, and the Politics of Choice (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2013); Kevin Begos, Danielle Deaver, John Railey, and Scott Sexton, Against Their Will: North Carolina’s Sterilization Program and the Campaign for Reparations (Apalachicola, FL: Gray Oak Books, 2012); Leilani Muir, A Whisper Past: Childless after Eugenic Sterilization in Alberta (Victoria, BC: Friesen Press, 2014); Wilson, “Role of Oral History,” 119–38. See also the Eugenics Archives website, http://eugenicsarchive.ca/.
4. 4. Mohammed Abouelleil Rashed, “In Defense of Madness: The Problem of Disability,” Journal of Medicine and Philosophy 44, no. 2 (2019): 150–74.
5. 5. Gunnar Broberg and Nils Roll-Hansen, eds., Eugenics and the Welfare State: Norway, Sweden, Denmark, and Finland (East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 2005).
6. 6. Carolyn Frohmader, Dehumanised: The Forced Sterilisation of Women and Girls with Disabilities in Australia, Women with Disabilities Australia (WWDA) submission to the Senate Inquiry into the Involuntary or Coerced Sterilisation of People with Disabilities in Australia (Rosny Park, Tasmania, March 2013), http://wwda.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2013/12/WWDA_Sub_SenateInquiry_Sterilisation_March2013.pdf; Australia, Parliament, Senate, Community Affairs References Committee, Involuntary or Coerced Sterilisation of People with Disabilities in Australia (Canberra, 2013), https://www.aph.gov.au/Parliamentary_Business/Committees/Senate/Community_Affairs/Involuntary_Sterilisation/First_Report; Corey G. Johnson, “Female Inmates Sterilized in California Prisons without Approval,” Reveal, Center for Investigative Reporting, July 7, 2013, https://www.revealnews.org/article/female-inmates-sterilized-in-california-prisons-without-approval/.
7. 7. Henry H. Goddard, The Kallikak Family: A Study in the Heredity of Feeble-Mindedness (New York: Macmillan, 1913); Lennard J. Davis, Enforcing Normalcy: Disability, Deafness, and the Body (New York: Verso, 1995).
8. 8. Robert A. Wilson, “Eugenic Traits,” Eugenics Archives, April 28, 2014, http://eugenicsarchive.ca/database/documents/535eeb757095aa0000000221. For a more developed discussion, see also Wilson, Eugenic Mind Project, chap. 3.
9. 9. Marsha Saxton, “Why Members of the Disability Community Oppose Prenatal Diagnoses and Selective Abortion,” in Prenatal Testing and Disability Rights, ed. Erik Parens and Adrienne Asch (Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press, 2000), 147–64; Adrienne Asch, “Why I Haven’t Changed My Mind about Prenatal Diagnosis: Reflections and Reminders,” in Parens and Asch, Prenatal Testing and Disability Rights, 234–58; Asch, “Disability Equality and Prenatal Testing: Contradictory or Compatible?,” Florida State University Law Review 30 (2003): 315–42. See also Angus McLaren and Arlene Tigar McLaren, The Bedroom and the State: The Changing Practices and Politics of Contraception and Abortion in Canada, 1880–1980 (Toronto: McClelland & Stewart, 1997).
10. 10. Rosemarie Garland-Thomson, “The Case for Conserving Disability,” Journal of Bioethical Inquiry 9, no. 3 (2012): 339–55.
11. 11. “Our Stories,” Eugenics Archives, http://eugenicsarchive.ca/discover/our-stories; Jordan Miller, Nicola Fairbrother, and Rob Wilson, dirs., Surviving Eugenics (Vancouver: Moving Images Distribution, 2015), DVD, online at http://eugenicsarchive.ca/film/.
12. 12. James I. Charlton, Nothing about Us without Us: Disability Oppression and Empowerment (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998).
13. 13. Wilson, “Eugenic Traits”; Wilson, Eugenic Mind Project, chap. 3; Theresa R. Richardson, The Century of the Child: The Mental Hygiene Movement and Social Policy in the United States and Canada (New York: State University of New York Press, 1989).
14. 14. Robert A. Wilson, “Psychology,” Eugenics Archives, December 1, 2014, http://eugenicsarchive.ca/database/documents/547ce966d7dacd0147000002; Aida Roige, “Intelligence and IQ Testing,” Eugenics Archives, April 19, 2014, http://eugenicsarchive.ca/database/documents/535eecb77095aa000000023a.
15. 15. Lionel Penrose, The Biology of Mental Defect (London: Sidgwick and Jackson, 1949); Nikolas S. Rose, The Psychological Complex: Psychology, Politics and Society in England, 1869–1939 (London: Routledge, 1985); Kevles, In the Name of Eugenics.
16. 16. See also Michael Hagner, Homo cerebralis. Der Wandel vom Seelenorgan zum Gehirn (Frankfurt am Main, Germany: Insel, 2000).
17. 17. Emil Kraepelin, “Psychiatric Observations on Contemporary Issues” (1919), trans. Eric J. Engstrom, History of Psychiatry 3, no. 2 (1992): 256–69.
18. 18. Natalie Ball, “Le Vann, Leonard J.,” Eugenics Archives, n.d., http://eugenicsarchive.ca/database/documents/512fa4b134c5399e2c00000d; Muir, A Whisper Past.
19. 19. Serife Tekin and Robyn Bluhm, eds., The Bloomsbury Companion to Philosophy of Psychiatry (London: Bloomsbury, 2019); Natalia Washington, “Contextualism as a Solution to Paternalism in Psychiatric Practice,” Philosophy, Psychiatry, & Psychology 25, no. 4 (2018): 235–43; Washington, “Culturally Unbound: Cross-Cultural Cognitive Diversity and the Science of Psychopathology,” Philosophy, Psychiatry, & Psychology 23, no. 2 (2016): 165–79.

INTRODUCTION

1. 1. Frank W. Stahnisch and Fred Weizmann, “Eugenics and Psychiatry—Analyzing the Origin, Application, and Perception of Early Forced Sterilization Programs from a Medical History Viewpoint,” in ISHN and Cheiron, ed. University of Calgary (Calgary, AB: University of Calgary, 2011), www.ucalgary.ca/ISHN_Cheiron/node/39.
2. 2. See the Eugenics Archives website, a project of the Living Archives on Eugenics Research Group, at http://eugenicsarchive.ca.
3. 3. Frank W. Stahnisch, “Eugenics and Psychiatry—Analyzing the Origin, Application and Perception of Early Forced Sterilization Programs from a Medical History Viewpoint,” Journal of the History of the Neurosciences 21, no. 1 (2012): 97–98.
4. 4. Eric Hobsbawm, The Age of Extremes: The Short Twentieth Century, 1914–1991 (London: Michel Joseph, 1994).
5. 5. See also Joachim Radkau, Das Zeitalter der Nervositaet. Deutschland zwischen Bismarck und Hitler (Munich: Fink Verlag, 1998), 9–15.
6. 6. Ian Robert Dowbiggin, Keeping America Sane: Psychiatry and Eugenics in the United States and Canada, 1880–1940 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2003), 23–69.
7. 7. Frank W. Stahnisch, “The Early Eugenics Movement and Emerging Professional Psychiatry: Conceptual Transfers and Personal Relationships between Germany and North America, 1880s to 1930s,” Canadian Bulletin of Medical History 31, no. 1 (2014): 17–40.
8. 8. See, for example, Christian Promitzer, Sevasti Trubeta, and Marius Turda, Health, Hygiene, and Eugenics in Southeastern Europe to 1945 (Budapest: Central European University Press, 2010).
9. 9. Frans G. I. Jennekens, “A Short History of the Notion of Neurodegenerative Disease,” Journal of the History of the Neurosciences 23, no. 1 (2014): 85–94.
10. 10. Rolf Winau, “Menschenzuechtung—Utopien und ethische Bewertung,” in Machbarkeitsphantasien, ed. Alfred Schaefer and Michael Wimmer (Berlin: Reimer Verlag, 2002), 55–65; Susan Lanzoni, “Diagnosing Modernity: Mania and Authenticity in the Existential Genre,” Configurations 12, no. 2 (2004): 107–31.
11. 11. In 1883, Galton coined the term “eugenics” and described it as “the study of agencies under social control that may improve or impair the racial qualities of future generations, either physically or mentally.” Francis Galton, Inquiries into Human Faculty and Its Development (London: Macmillan, 1883), 30.
12. 12. Angus McLaren, Our Own Master Race: Eugenics in Canada, 1885–1945 (Toronto: McClelland & Stewart, 1990), 15.
13. 13. The term “unfit” was used to describe a variety of individuals and groups, including the mentally disabled, the physically disabled, new immigrants, the poor, and criminals, among others. McLaren, Our Own Master Race, 16.
14. 14. James E. Moran and David Wright, eds., Mental Health and Canadian Society (Montréal and Kingston: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2008).
15. 15. Byron M. Unkauf, “The Sterilization of the Mental Defective,” The University of Manitoba Medical Journal 5/6, no. 1 (1933–35): 46. See also chapter 5 in this volume.
16. 16. Volker Roelcke, “Die Etablierung der psychiatrischen Genetik in Deutschland, Grossbritannien und den USA, ca. 1910–1960. Zur untrennbaren Geschichte von Eugenik und Humangenetik,” Acta Historica Leopoldina 48, no. 2 (2007): 173–90; Peter Hoff and Matthias M. Weber, “Sozialdarwinismus und die Psychiatrie im Nationalsozialismus,” Der Nervenarzt 11, no. 10 (2002): 1017–18.
17. 17. Maren Lorenz, “Proto-Eugenic Thought and Breeding Utopias in the United States before 1870,” Bulletin of the German Historical Institute 43, no. 1 (2008): 67–90.
18. 18. Michael Haines and Richard H. Steckel, eds., A Population History of North America (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), 81–91.
19. 19. Redpath Library: Special Collections and Journal Collections; McGill University, Montréal, Sessional Papers. Select Standing Committee on Law Amendments re: Mental Deficiency. G8250 (1933).
20. 20. McLaren, Our Own Master Race, 97–100.
21. 21. Erna Kurbegović, “The Influence of the Manitoba Mental Hygiene Survey, 1918,” Western Humanities Review 69, no. 3 (2016): 311.
22. 22. See McLaren, Our Own Master Race, 31.
23. 23. Collection on Immigration to Canada, Bibliothèque et Archives nationales du Québec, Montréal.
24. 24. McLaren, Our Own Master Race, 47.
25. 25. Amy Samson, “Eugenics in the Community: United Farm Women of Alberta, Public Health Nursing, Teaching, Social Work, and Sexual Sterilization in Alberta, 1928–1972” (PhD diss., University of Saskatchewan, 2014), 33.
26. 26. McLaren, Our Own Master Race, 55.
27. 27. Ian Robert Dowbiggin, The Quest for Mental Health: A Tale of Science, Medicine, Scandal, Sorrow, and Mass Society (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011), 102.
28. 28. McLaren, Our Own Master Race; Ian Dowbiggin, The Sterilization Movement and Global Fertility in the Twentieth Century (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008); Erika Dyck, Facing Eugenics: Reproduction, Sterilization, and the Politics of Choice (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2013).
29. 29. McLaren, Our Own Master Race.
30. 30. Richard Cairney, “ ‘Democracy Was Never Intended for Degenerates’: Alberta’s Flirtation with Eugenics Comes Back to Haunt It,” Canadian Medical Association Journal 155, no. 7 (1997): 789.
31. 31. Ian Dowbiggin, Sterilization Movement and Global Fertility in the Twentieth Century (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008); Angus McLaren, Reproduction by Design: Sex, Robots, Trees, and Test-Tube Babies in Interwar Britain (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2012).
32. 32. Jana Grekul, “Sterilization in Alberta, 1928 to 1972: Gender Matters,” Canadian Review of Sociology 45, no. 3 (2008): 247–66. See also Jana Grekul, Harvey Krahn, and David Odynak, “Sterilizing the ‘Feeble Minded’: Eugenics in Alberta, Canada 1929–72,” Journal of Historical Sociology 17, no. 4 (2004): 358–84.
33. 33. Geertje Boschma, “A Family Point of View: Negotiating Asylum Care in Alberta, 1905–1930,” Canadian Bulletin of Medical History 25, no. 2 (2008): 367–89.
34. 34. Michael Gauvreau and Olivier Hubert, eds., The Churches and Social Order in Nineteenth and Twentieth Century Canada (Montréal and Kingston: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2006).
35. 35. Sebastien Normandin, “Eugenics, McGill and the Catholic Church in Montréal and Québec, 1890–1942,” Canadian Bulletin of Medical History 15, no. 1 (1998): 59–86.
36. 36. See Donald J. Dietrich, “Catholic Theologians in Hitler’s Reich: Adaptation and Critique,” Journal of Church and State 29, no. 1 (1987): 19–45; Donald J. Dietrich, “Catholic Eugenics in Germany, 1920–1945: Hermann Muckermann, S.J. and Joseph Mayer,” Journal of Church and State 34, no. 3 (1992): 575–600.
37. 37. See Erika Dyck and Alex Deighton, Managing Madness: Weyburn Mental Hospital and the Transformation of Psychiatric Care in Canada (Winnipeg: University of Manitoba Press, 2017); Deighton, “The Nature of Eugenic Thought and Limits of Eugenic Practice in Interwar Saskatchewan,” in Eugenics at the Edges of Empire: New Zealand, Australia, Canada, and South Africa, ed. Diane B. Paul, Hamish G. Spencer, and John Stenhouse (Cham, NY: Palgrave Macmillan, 2018), 63–84; Dyck, Facing Eugenics; Karolina Kowalewski and Yasmin Mayne, “The Translation of Eugenic Ideology into Public Health Policy: The Case of Alberta and Saskatchewan,” in The Proceedings of the 18th Annual History of Medicine Days Conference 2009, ed. Lisa Peterman, Kerry Sun, and Frank W. Stahnisch (Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2012), 53–74.
38. 38. Alex Deighton, “Saskatchewan,” Eugenics Archives, March 26, 2015, http://eugenicsarchive.ca/discover/world/551482b25eff8d344d000001.
39. 39. Deighton, “Nature of Eugenic Thought,” 66.
40. 40. Dyck and Deighton, Managing Madness, 73.
41. 41. Deighton, “Nature of Eugenic Thought.”
42. 42. Jaclyn Duffin, “The Guru and the Godfather: Henry Sigerist, Hugh MacLean, and the Politics of Health Care Reform in 1940s Canada,” Canadian Bulletin of Medical History 9, no. 2 (1992): 191–218.
43. 43. Duffin, “Guru and Godfather.”
44. 44. Deighton, “Saskatchewan.”
45. 45. Mental Defectives Act, R.S.S. 1930, c. 196, sections 1–2.
46. 46. Deighton, “Nature of Eugenic Thought,” 77.
47. 47. Deighton, “Nature of Eugenic Thought,” 67–70.
48. 48. Deighton, “Nature of Eugenic Thought,” 78.
49. 49. See Yvonne Boyer and Judith Bartlett, “External Review: Tubal Ligation in the Saskatoon Health Region: The Lived Experience of Aboriginal Women” (unpublished paper, Saskatoon, July 27, 2017), https://www.saskatoonhealthregion.ca/DocumentsInternal/Tubal_Ligation_intheSaskatoonHealthRegion_the_Lived_Experience_of_Aboriginal_Women_BoyerandBartlett_July_22_2017.pdf.
50. 50. Carolyn Strange and Jennifer A. Stephen, “Eugenics in Canada: A Checkered History, 1850s–1990s,” in The Oxford Handbook of the History of Eugenics, ed. Alison Bashford and Philippa Levine (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010), 527–38.
51. 51. Naomi Nind, “Solving an ‘Appalling’ Problem: Social Reformers and the Campaign for the Alberta Sexual Sterilization Act, 1928,” Alberta Law Review 38, no. 4 (2000): 536–62.
52. 52. See also Amy Samson, “Eugenics in the Community: Gendered Professions and Eugenic Sterilization in Alberta, 1928–1972,” Canadian Bulletin of Medical History 31, no. 1 (2014): 143–63.
53. 53. MacEachran, interview by Myers.
54. 54. Ian Robert Dowbiggin, Keeping America Sane: Psychiatry and Eugenics in the United States and Canada, 1880–1940 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2003), 100. The first American state to pass a sterilization law was Indiana (1907), followed by California, Washington, and Connecticut (all 1909).
55. 55. Deighton, “Nature of Eugenic Thought,” 63–82.
56. 56. This is quite visible from the historical information available in the Provincial Archives of Alberta’s Department of Public Health Fond (acc. no. 86.36 (~RPC 85/230 – 11-30-5-Z 517), 1935), where early on all available reports and publications related to the forced sterilization program were collected and assembled, together with other “noteworthy” social and medical information related to the public health mandate of the province. See, for example, Charles A. Baragar, Georges A. Davidson, William J. McAlister, and David L. McCulloch, “Sexual Sterilization: Four Years Experience in Alberta,” American Journal of Psychiatry 91 (1935): 897–923 (see Appendix).
57. 57. On the abolishment of the act, and the Leilani Muir trial (1995–96) that followed, see Douglas Wahlsten, “Leilani Muir versus the Philosopher King: Eugenics on Trial in Alberta,” Genetica 99, no. 1 (1997): 185–98; Leilani Muir, A Whisper Past: Childless after Eugenic Sterilization in Alberta (Victoria, BC: Friesen Press, 2014).
58. 58. See Kowalewski and Mayne, “Translation of Eugenic Ideology.”
59. 59. Jana Grekul, Harvey Krahn, and Dave Odynak, “Sterilizing the ‘Feeble-Minded’: Eugenics in Alberta, Canada, 1929–1972,” Journal of Historical Sociology 17, no. 4 (2004): 358–84.
60. 60. See also Grekul, Sterilization in Alberta, 247–66.
61. 61. Grekul, Krahn, and Odynak, “Sterilizing the ‘Feeble-Minded,’ ” 361.
62. 62. McLaren, Our Own Master Race, 168.
63. 63. See Kowalewski and Mayne, “Translation of Eugenic Ideology.”
64. 64. McLaren, Our Own Master Race, 127–45.
65. 65. Amanda Oliveira, “The Coming and Going of Eugenics in Alberta: A Discarded History, 1928 to 1972,” (MA thesis, Lakehead University, 2016), 62.
66. 66. See for example, Dominique Marshall, The Social Origins of the Welfare State: Quebec Families, Compulsory Education, and Family Allowances, 1940–1955 (Waterloo, ON: Wilfrid Laurier University Press, 2006).
67. 67. See McLaren, Our Own Master Race, 55.
68. 68. See, for example, Neal Ross Holtan, “The Eitels and Their Hospital,” Minnesota Medicine 36 (2003): 52–54; David Gibson, “Involuntary Sterilization of the Mentally Retarded: A Western Canadian Phenomenon,” Canadian Psychiatric Association Journal 19, no. 1 (1974): 59–63.
69. 69. Bénédict Augustin Morel, Traité des dégénérescences physique, et intellectuelles et morales de l’espèce humaine et de ces causes qui produisent ces variétiés maladives, 2 vols. (Paris: Baillière, 1857/58).
70. 70. Constantin von Monakow and Raoul Mourge, “Introduction biologique à l’étude de la neurologie et de la psychopathologie,” Zeitschrift fuer Psychologie 115, no. 4 (1928): 403–10.
71. 71. Erwin H. Ackerknecht, A Short History of Psychiatry (New York: Hafner, 1968), 70.
72. 72. Hermann Oppenheim, Die traumatischen Neurosen nach den in der Nervenklinik der Charité in den letzten 5 Jahren gesammelten Beobachtungen (Berlin: Hirschwald, 1889).
73. 73. Joachim Radkau, Das Zeitalter der Nervositaet. Deutschland zwischen Bismarck und Hitler. Munich: Fink Verlag, 1998, 9–15.
74. 74. Axel Karenberg, “Klinische Neurologie in Deutschland bis zum Ersten Weltkrieg—die Begruender des Faches und der Fachgesellschaft,” in 100 Jahre Deutsche Gesellschaft fuer Neurologie, ed. Detlef Koempf (Berlin: Deutsche Gesellschaft fuer Neurologie, 2007), 20–29.
75. 75. Heinz-Peter Schmiedebach, “The Public’s View of Neurasthenia in Germany—Looking for a New Rhythm of Life,” in Cultures of Neurasthenia: From Beard to the First World War, ed. Marijke Gijswijt-Hofstra and Roy Porter (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 2001), 219–38; Wolfgang U. Eckart, “ ‘Die wachsende Nervositaet unserer Zeit’—Medizin und Kultur im Fin de siècle am Beispiel der Modekrankheit Neurasthenie,” in Psychiatrie um die Jahrhundertwende, ed. Fritz Reimer (Heilbronn, Germany: Weinsberger Kolloquium, 1994), 9–38; Hans-Georg Hofer, “War Neurosis and Viennese Psychiatry in World War One,” in Uncovered Fields: Perspectives in First World War Studies, ed. Jenny Macleod and Pierre Purseigle (Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2004), 243–60.
76. 76. Wilhelm Erb, Ueber die wachsende Nervositaet unserer Zeit. Akademische Rede zum Geburtsfeste des hoechstseligen Grossherzogs Karl Friedrich am 22. November 1893 beim Vortrage des Jahresberichts und der Verkuendigung der akademischen Preise gehalten (Heidelberg: Universitaetsreden, 1893), 1; translated by Frank W. Stahnisch.
77. 77. Joachim Radkau, “The Neurasthenic Experience in Imperial Germany: Expeditions into Patient Records and Side-Looks upon General History,” in Gijswijt-Hofstra and Porter, Cultures of Neurasthenia, 199–217.
78. 78. Alois Alzheimer, “Ist die Einrichtung einer psychiatrischen Abteilung im Reichsgesundheitsamt erstrebenswert?,” Zeitschrift fuer die gesamte Neurologie und Psychiatrie 6, no. 2 (1911): 242–46; Auguste Forel, Hygiene der Nerven und des Geistes im Gesunden und kranken Zustande (Stuttgart: E. Moritz, 1905); Peter Zuerner, “Von der Hirnanatomie zur Eugenik. Die Suche nach den biologischen Ursachen der Geisteskrankheiten. Eine Untersuchung am Beispiel des Werkes von August Forel, (1848–1931)” (Med. diss., University of Mainz, 1983).
79. 79. See also Radkau, Das Zeitalter der Nervositaet, 9–15.
80. 80. Johannes Hendrikus Burgers, “Max Nordau, Madison Grant, and Racialized Theories of Ideology,” Journal of the History of Ideas 72, no. 1 (2011): 119–40.
81. 81. Volker Roelcke, “Electrified Nerves, Degenerated Bodies: Medical Discourses in Neurasthenia in Germany, ca. 1990–1914,” in Gijswijt-Hofstra and Porter, Cultures of Neurasthenia, 177–97; William H. Tucker, The Funding of Scientific Racism: Wickliffe Draper and the Pioneer Fund (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2002), 32–47.
82. 82. Roelcke, “Electrified Nerves.”
83. 83. Stefan Kuehl, The Nazi Connection: Eugenics, American Racism, and German National Socialism (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), 6.
84. 84. Angelique Richardson, Love and Eugenics in the Late Nineteenth Century: Rational Reproduction and the New Woman (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003).
85. 85. Garland E. Allen, “The Ideology of Elimination: American and German Eugenics, 1900–1945,” in Medicine and Medical Ethics in Nazi Germany: Origins, Practices, Legacies, ed. Francis R. Nicosia and Jonathan Huener (New York: Berghahn Books, 2002), 19.
86. 86. Dowbiggin, Keeping America Sane, 77.
87. 87. André Dupras, “Public Attitudes towards the Sterilization of Handicapped People,” in Sterilization and Mental Handicap: Proceedings of a Symposium Sponsored by the National Institute on Mental Retardation and the Ontario Association for the Mentally Retarded, ed. Mental Institute on Mental Retardation, Ontario Association for the Mentally Retarded (Downsview, ON: National Institute on Mental Retardation, 1980), 65.
88. 88. Robert N. Proctor, Racial Hygiene: Medicine under the Nazis (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1988), 145–48.
89. 89. Henry Friedlander, Origins of Nazi Genocide: From Euthanasia to the Final Solution (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina, 1995), 26.
90. 90. Proctor, Racial Hygiene, 131.
91. 91. Kuehl, Nazi Connection, 20.
92. 92. Dowbiggin, Keeping America Sane, 36.
93. 93. Oswald Bumke, Ueber Nervoese Entartung (Berlin: Julius Springer, 1912).
94. 94. See also Michael Hau, The Cult of Health and Beauty in Germany: A Social History, 1890–1930 (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 2003), 120–24.
95. 95. [Sender of letter] to former Kaiser Wilhelm Society, July 20, 1928, Personal File Ruedin, Historical Archive of the Max-Planck-Society, Div. I, Rep. IA, Library of the Max Planck Institute for the History of Science, Berlin.
96. 96. See also Graham Baker, “Eugenics and Migration: A Case Study of Salvation Army Literature about Canada and Britain, c.1890–1930,” Canadian Bulletin of Medical History 31, no. 1 (2014): 77–98.
97. 97. Kuehl, Nazi Connection, 123.
98. 98. Matthias M. Weber, “Die Deutsche Forschungsanstalt fuer Psychiatrie,” in 75 Jahre Max-Planck-Institut fuer Psychiatrie, ed. Max-Planck-Gesellschaft (Munich: Max Planck Gesellschaft, 1992), 11–33.
99. 99. See also Ruth Leys and Rand B. Evans, Defining American Psychology: The Correspondence between Adolf Meyer and Edward Bradford Titchener (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1990); Susan D. Lamb, “Pathologist of the Mind: Adolf Meyer, Psychobiology and the Phipps Psychiatric Clinic at the Johns Hopkins Hospital, 1908–1917” (PhD diss., Johns Hopkins University, 2010).
100. 100. Theodore M. Brown, “Friendship and Philanthropy: Henry Severest, Alan Gregg and the Rockefeller Foundation,” in Making Medical History: The Life and Time of Henry E. Sigerist, ed. Elizabeth Fee and Theodore M. Brown (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997), 288–312.
101. 101. Emigré psychiatrist Adolph Meyer also ranked high on Alan Gregg’s (1890–1957) influential research support list of US and Canadian brain science. See Dr. Gregg’s List, American Association of Neurology, n. d. 1936 RG1C15:2, Department of Neurology and Psychiatry, Series 2, n. p.
102. 102. Frank W. Stahnisch, “Flexible Antworten—Offene Fragen: Zu den Foerderungsstrategien der Rockefellerstiftung fuer die deutsche Hirnforschung im Nationalsozialismus,” Journal fuer Neurologie, Neurochirurgie und Psychiatrie 12, no. 2 (2011): 56–62.
103. 103. Edwin R. Embrée (1883–1950), diary entry, November 10, 1922, Rockefeller Archive Center. For the wider institutional and organizational research context, see Frank W. Stahnisch, A New Field in Mind: A History of Interdisciplinarity in the Early Brain Sciences (Montréal and Kingston: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2019), 368n64.
104. 104. Alexander von Schwerin, Experimentalisierung des Menschen: Der Genetiker Hans Nachtsheim und die Erbpathologie, 1920–1945 (Goettingen: Wallstein, 2000); Matthias M. Weber, “Harnack-Prinzip oder Fuehrerprinzip? Erbbiologie unter Ernst Ruedin an der Deutschen Forschungsanstalt fuer Psychiatrie (Kaiser-Wilhelm-Institut) in Muenchen,” in Die Kaiser-Wilhelm-Max-Planck-Gesellschaft und ihre Institute, ed. Bernhard vom Brocke and Hubert Laitko (Berlin: de Gruyter, 1996), 412.
105. 105. McLaren, Our Own Master Race, 119.
106. 106. Grekul, Krahn, and Odynak, “Sterilizing the ‘Feeble-Minded,’ ” 362.
107. 107. McLaren, Our Own Master Race, 40–85.
108. 108. Tommy C. Douglas, The Making of a Socialist: The Recollections of T. C. Douglas, ed. Lewis Thomas (Edmonton: University of Alberta Press, 1984), 108.
109. 109. See, for example, Canadian Society for the Protection of Science and Learning file, RG95-1. box 540, and Passenger Lists: Halifax, 1865–1935, RG76, Library and Archives Canada, Ottawa.
110. 110. McLaren, Our Own Master Race, 168.
111. 111. See “Editorial,” Washington Post, January 7, 1936, 1; “Editorial,” Washington Post, January 23, 1936, 4; and “Editorial,” New York Times, January 26, 1936, 8.
112. 112. See, for example, Doug Owram, Born at the Right Time: A History of the Baby-Boom Generation (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1999).
113. 113. Grekul, Krahn, and Odynak, “Sterilizing the ‘feeble-minded,’ ” 371. For additional information on the Provincial Training School (Michener Centre) see Claudia Malacrida, A Special Hell: Institutional Life in Alberta’s Eugenic Years (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2015).
114. 114. On the Prairie provinces of Canada, see Gerald Friesen, The Canadian Prairies: A History (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1987).
115. 115. Gerald O’Brien, Framing the Moron: The Social Construction of Feeble-Mindedness in the American Eugenic Era (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2013).
116. 116. Dowbiggin, Keeping America Sane.
117. 117. Susanne Klausen, “Rethinking Reproduction: New Approaches to the History of Sexuality, Gender, the Family, and Reproductive Control,” Journal of Contemporary History 44, no. 1 (2009): 117–27.
118. 118. Ute Deichmann, Biologists under Hitler (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1996). (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1996).
119. 119. Donald H. Avery, Reluctant Host: Canada’s Response to Immigrant Workers, 1896–1994 (Toronto: McClelland & Stewart, 1995).
120. 120. Geoffrey Bilson, “ ‘Muscles and Health’: Health and the Canadian Immigrant,” in Health, Disease and Medicine, ed. Charles G. Roland (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1984), 398–411.
121. 121. Cecily Devereux, Growing a Race: Nellie L. McClung and the Fiction of Eugenic Feminism (Montréal and Kingston: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2006).
122. 122. Francis Galton, Essays in Eugenics (London: Eugenics Education Society, 1909), 35.
123. 123. Alan F. J. Artibise, Winnipeg: A Social History of Urban Growth, 1874–1914 (Montréal and Kingston: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 1975).
124. 124. Frank W. Stahnisch, “Von der Kriegsneurologie zur Psychotherapie – Kurt Goldstein (1878–1965) Ansaetze zur fruehen Form der Gruppenanalyse,” Gruppenpsychotherapie und Gruppendynamik – Zeitschrift zur Theorie und Praxis der Gruppenanalyse 50, no. 2 (2014): 136–55.
125. 125. Marius Turda, Modernism and Eugenics (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010); Marius Turda and Paul Weindling, eds., Blood and Homeland: Eugenics and Racial Nationalism in Central and Southeast Europe, 1900–1940 (Budapest: Central European University Press, 2006).
126. 126. George Canguilhem, The Normal and the Pathological, trans. Carolyn R. Fawcett (New York: Zone Books, 1989).
127. 127. See also Johanna Schoen, Choice and Coercion: Birth Control, Sterilization, and Abortion in Public Health and Welfare (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2005).

CHAPTER 1

1. 1. The authors thank Robert Lampard for his comments on an earlier version of this chapter.
2. 2. The occasional article that focuses on MacEachran never provides more than the most basic information about his life that can be readily gleaned online; see for example, Korbla Puplampu, “Knowledge, Power, and Social Policy: John M. MacEachran and Alberta’s 1928 Sexual Sterilization Act,” Alberta Journal of Educational Research 54, no. 1 (2008): 129–46.
3. 3. Doug Wahlsten notes that Timothy Christian (the author of an important legal study of eugenics in Alberta: Timothy Christian and Burke Barker, “The Mentally Ill and Human Rights in Alberta: A Study of the Alberta Sexual Sterilization Act” (Edmonton: University of Alberta. Faculty of Law, 1973) informed him that MacEachran burned his personal papers prior to his death. See Wahlsten, “The Eugenics of John M. MacEachran Warrants Revocation of Honours,” History and Philosophy of Psychology Bulletin 10, no. 1 (1998): 22–25.
4. 4. Natalie Ball, “MacEachran, John,” Eugenics Archives, n.d., http://eugenicsarchive.ca/database/documents/512fa14834c5399e2c000006.
5. 5. For further expansion of this discussion at the University of Alberta see Wahlsten, “Eugenics of John M. MacEachran”; Wahlsten, “Leilani Muir versus the Philosopher King: Eugenics on Trial in Alberta,” Genetica 99, no. 1 (1997): 185–98; and David Kahane, David Sharp, and Martin Tweedale, “Report of the MacEachran Subcommittee” (Department of Philosophy, University of Alberta, April 1998), https://s3.amazonaws.com/bmcmahen/maceachran_report.pdf.
6. 6. Kelley Torrance, “The Sterilization of History,” Alberta Report 24, no. 47 (1997): 32–33; Ric Dolphin, “Honours Shelved for Professor Linked to Eugenics,” Edmonton Journal, October 17, 1997, A1. The scholarships given in his name no longer appear to exist (e.g., the MacEachran Gold Medal in Philosophy, the MacEachran Humanities Prize). However, a scholarship given each year in his wife’s name (the Elizabeth Russell MacEachran Scholarship) can still be found in University of Alberta scholarship listings.
7. 7. Two laudatory versions were written by Thomas Nelson prior to the public discussions that followed the Leilani Muir lawsuit of 1995. Nelson, “John A. [sic] MacEachran,” Western Psychologist 3 (1972): 51–62; Nelson, “Psychology at Alberta,” in History of Academic Psychology in Canada, ed. Mary Wright and C. Roger Myers (Toronto: C. J. Hogrefe, 1982), 192–219. The relevant context of MacEachran’s life (particularly the history of the province of Alberta and the University of Alberta) will not be covered here except for those issues that are directly relevant. For background, see Howard Palmer and Tamara Palmer, Alberta: A New History (Edmonton: Hurtig, 1990); and Walter H. Johns, A History of the University of Alberta, 1908–1969 (Edmonton: University of Alberta Press, 1981).
8. 8. John MacEachran, interview by C. Roger Myers, 1970, 25-17, Canadian Psychological Association fonds, MG 28 I 161, Library and Archives Canada.
9. 9. Robert Douglas Gidney and Wyn P. J. Millar, “The Salaries of Teachers in English Canada 1900–1940: A Reappraisal,” Historical Studies in Education 22, no. 1 (2010): 1–38; Gidney and Millar, How Schools Worked: Public Education in English Canada, 1900–1940 (Montréal and Kingston: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2012).
10. 10. In MacEachran’s article “Twenty-Five Years of Philosophical Speculation” he states that he entered Queen’s University in 1888. However, this is likely a typographical error because this would have made him only eleven years old when he began his university education. It is much more likely that he entered Queen’s in 1898. MacEachran, “Twenty-Five Years of Philosophical Speculation,” in These Twenty-Five Years: A Symposium, ed. William Hardy Alexander, Edmund Kemper Broadus, Francis John Lewis, and John M. MacEachran (Toronto: Macmillan, 1933), 79–113.
11. 11. See also his evaluation of John Watson in MacEachran, “John Watson,” in Some Great Men of Queen’s, ed. Robert Charles Wallace (Toronto: Ryerson University, 1941), 22–50.
12. 12. Charles Tolman, John Watson of Queen’s (unpublished manuscript, Kingston, ON, 1999).
13. 13. Leslie Armour and Elizabeth Trott, The Faces of Reason: An Essay on Philosophy and Culture in English Canada; 1850–1959 (Waterloo, ON: Wilfrid Laurier University Press, 1981).
14. 14. Queen’s University Archives was unable to locate a copy.
15. 15. John M. MacEachran, “A Dream of Olympus” (paper presented to the Faculty Club at the University of Alberta, Edmonton, October 23, 1932), John MacEachran fonds, acc. no. 71-217, University of Alberta Archives, Edmonton.
16. 16. This was not an unusual choice; most of the early psychologists who initiated laboratory studies in psychology in North America in the latter decades of the nineteenth century had obtained doctorates in Germany. Ludy T. Benjamin, Maureen Durkin, Michelle Link, Marilyn Vestal, and Jill Acord, “Wundt’s American Doctoral Students,” American Psychologist 47, no. 2 (1992): 123–31.
17. 17. Nelson, “John A. MacEachran.”
18. 18. Benjamin et al., “Wundt’s American Doctoral Students.” The steady stream of foreign students working with Wundt slowed considerably after 1900, in part because of the number of universities in North America offering doctoral degrees in psychology. In addition, an advanced degree from a German university no longer appeared to offer an automatic advantage to American students, at least in securing employment. Furthermore, as is well known, Wundt began work on his Voelkerpsychologie in 1900.
19. 19. John MacEachran, Pragmatismus: Inaugural-dissertation zur Erlangung der Doktorwuerde der hohen philosophischen Fakultaet (Leipzig: Druck von G. Kreysing, 1910).
20. 20. MacEachran, interview by Myers.
21. 21. MacEachran, interview by Myers.
22. 22. William James, Pragmatism: A New Name for Some Old Ways of Thinking (New York: Longmans, Green and Company, 1907).
23. 23. Nelson, “Psychology at Alberta”; MacEachran, interview by Myers.
24. 24. MacEachran, Pragmatismus, 79.
25. 25. Later he refers to James’s pragmatism as a “very delectable mess of pottage, which had a way of steaming up and boiling over in brilliant literary outbursts of great freshness and rare fragrance. Yet while its particular flavoring proved very appetising to a rising generation of young and vigorous thinkers, it afforded no regulation diet for their diverse tastes.” MacEachran, “Twenty-Five Years,” 101.
26. 26. MacEachran, “Twenty-Five Years.”
27. 27. MacEachran, “Twenty-Five Years,” 101.
28. 28. “Population History,” 1878–2016, City of Edmonton website, https://www.edmonton.ca/city_government/facts_figures/population-history.aspx.
29. 29. The future prime minister of Canada, John Diefenbaker (1895–1979) served in this battalion in 1916 and 1917. Dictionary of Canadian Biography, s. v. “Diefenbaker, John George,” by Denis Smith, accessed April 19, 2018, http://www.biographi.ca/en/bio/diefenbaker_john_george_20E.html.
30. 30. Ellen Schoek, I Was There: A Century of Stories about the University of Alberta, 1906–2006 (Edmonton: University of Alberta Press, 2006). MacEachran was not the only recipient of an unusual offer. Edmund Kemper Broadus (1876–1936), the first English professor, was at Harvard (where he was completing his PhD) and said, “On a day in June, 1908, the president of a university not yet in being, in a province which I had never heard of, in a country which I had never visited, came to Harvard and offered me the professorship of English. The offer sounded like midsummer madness. I think that what I accepted was, not the position or the salary, but the man.” Dictionary of Canadian Biography, s. v. “Broadus, Edmund Kemper,” by Ernest George Mardon and Austin Mardon in collaboration with Elizabeth Hulse, http://www.biographi.ca/en/bio/broadus_edmund_kemper_16E.html.
31. 31. Nelson, “John A. MacEachran.”
32. 32. Johns, History of the University of Alberta.
33. 33. Douglas A. Smith, “Development of the Department of Psychology, University of Alberta: 1909–1963,” typescript, 1975, UAA-2006-163, Department of Psychology collection, University of Alberta Archives, Research & Collections Resource Facility, Edmonton.
34. 34. Nelson, “Psychology at Alberta,” 195.
35. 35. John MacEachran, An Outline of Modern Philosophy (Edmonton: University of Alberta Archives, n.d.).
36. 36. Johns, History of the University of Alberta.
37. 37. In 1938, he also wrote the first draft of the constitution of the Canadian Psychological Association. He was clearly viewed as an éminence grise among Canadian psychologists, and the correspondence about the founding of the new association indicates the respect accorded him. See Canadian Psychology Association fonds, accession number 1986-0317, 17–9, National Library and Archives of Canada, Ottawa, Ontario.
38. 38. See, for example, Dyck, Facing Eugenics; Jana Grekul, “The Social Construction of the Feebleminded Threat: Implementation of the Sexual Sterilization Act in Alberta, 1929–1972” (PhD diss., University of Alberta, 2002); Malacrida, Special Hell; Angus McLaren, Our Own Master Race: Eugenics in Canada, 1885–1945 (Toronto: McClelland & Stewart, 1990); Carolyn Strange and Jennifer A. Stephen, “Eugenics in Canada: A Checkered History, 1850s–1990s,” in The Oxford Handbook of the History of Eugenics, ed. Alison Bashford and Philippa Levine (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010), 527–38.
39. 39. Ian H. Clarke, “Public Provisions for the Mentally Ill in Alberta, 1907–1936” (master’s thesis, University of Calgary, 1973).
40. 40. Sexual Sterilization Act, S.A. 1928, c. 37, 117.
41. 41. Sexual Sterilization Act Amendment Act, S.A. 1937, c. 47, 181.
42. 42. E. Mary Frost, “Sterilization in Alberta: A Summary of the Cases Presented to the Eugenics Board for the Province of Alberta from 1929–1941” (master’s thesis, University of Alberta, 1942).
43. 43. Wahlsten, “Leilani Muir.”
44. 44. Sexual Sterilization Repeal Act, S.A. 1972, c. 87.
45. 45. Dyck, Facing Eugenics; Wahlsten, “Leilani Muir.”
46. 46. Alberta, Legislative Assembly, Hansard, 17th Leg., 1st Sess., No. 58-37 (May 31, 1972) at 3945, http://www.assembly.ab.ca/Documents/isysquery/07e597c6-b4af-430c-b5e6-c7a7cf8a7b09/1/doc/.
47. 47. David King, interview, April 20, 2018.
48. 48. Anon. quoted in John Schmidt, “Agricultural Alberta,” Calgary Herald, March 26, 1969, 8.
49. 49. Along with a review of the Common Property Act (an affront to Hutterite communities), the Sexual Sterilization Act was an impediment to the Bill of Rights (King, interview). The Women of Unifarm was a group created when the province’s major agricultural organizations merged in 1970. However, it carried forward the ideology that was so long part of the United Farm Women of Alberta that had preceded it. See Carol Jacques, Unifarm: A Story of Conflict and Change (Calgary: University of Calgary Press, 2001).
50. 50. Muir v. Alberta (1996), 132 DLR (4th) 695, http://canlii.ca/t/1p6lq; see also Wahlsten, “Leilani Muir.”
51. 51. It should be noted that on March 9, 1998, the provincial government of the day—a Progressive Conservative government led by then premier Ralph Klein (1942–2013)—introduced legislation to limit compensation to victims of sexual sterilization. Klein intended to use the “notwithstanding clause” in the Charter of Rights and Freedoms to bypass any damages the courts might award to the sexually sterilized. The bill was withdrawn the next day following outrage from the public. See Sandra Martin, “Ralph Klein, 70: The Man Who Ruled Alberta,” Globe and Mail, March 29, 2013, https://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/national/ralph-klein-70-the-man-who-ruled-alberta/article10569210/.
52. 52. These include Dyck, Facing Eugenics; Malacrida, Special Hell; Grekul, “Social Construction”; Amy Kaler, Baby Trouble in the Last Best West: Making New People in Alberta, 1905–1939 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2017); and Robert A. Wilson, The Eugenic Mind Project (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press 2018). See also Erna Kurbegović, “Eugenics in Comparative Perspective: Explaining Manitoba and Alberta’s Divergence on Eugenics Policy, 1910 to the 1930s” (PhD diss., University of Calgary, 2019).
53. 53. C. Roger Myers, interview by Thomas Nelson, Canadian Psychology Association fonds, accession number 1986-0317, 26–33, National Library and Archives of Canada, Ottawa.
54. 54. Heather Pringle, “Alberta Barren,” Saturday Night, June 1997, 35. Pringle does not say why she makes this strong claim. Certainly, no one who had known MacEachran ever described him as a “bull terrier.”
55. 55. Douglas A. Smith, “Development of the Department of Psychology, University of Alberta: 1909–1963,” typescript, 1975, UAA-2006-163, Department of Psychology collection, University of Alberta Archives, Research & Collections Resource Facility, Edmonton.
56. 56. “Notice of Return: Return asked for by Mr. [Leonidas Alcidas] Giroux respecting members of the Sexual Sterilization Act Board,” 1932, acc. no. 70.414, box 31, item 1173, Provincial Archives of Alberta.
57. 57. Both William R. N. (“Buck”) Blair (1929–2006) and David Gibson (1926–2006), faculty in the Department of Psychology at the University of Calgary, were members of the AEB in its final years. However, there were no attempts to revisit this at the University of Calgary, possibly because there are no scholarships, rooms, or other honours still associated with Blair or Gibson and their participation was for one year each. Furthermore, Blair distinguished himself as the author of the well-known report on the Alberta Mental Health Study, otherwise known as the “Blair Report,” in which he called for an overhaul of the Sexual Sterilization Act—although not its repeal. Blair, Mental Health in Alberta: A Report on the Alberta Mental Health Study, 1968, vol. 1 (Edmonton: Human Resources Research and Development Executive Council, Government of Alberta, 1969). For the names of all board members from 1929 to 1972, see Grekul, “Social Construction,” 102.
58. 58. “Reports of Societies,” British Medical Journal 3868 (February 23, 1935), 378.
59. 59. Reports of Societies, 379.
60. 60. McLaren, Our Own Master Race.
61. 61. See, for example, Pringle, “Alberta Barren”; and Grekul, “Social Construction.”
62. 62. Grekul, “Social Construction,” 103.
63. 63. The brevity led to some very unusual cases, such as that of the fifty-eight-year-old man who was sterilized and whose record indicated “he has made homosexual attempts on his brother.” The patient granted no permissions, and no IQ test was performed. This man had been hospitalized for the better part of a decade and was not likely to be released.
64. 64. Eugenics Board Minutes, June 14, 1945, GR0008.0004F, Provincial Archives of Alberta.
65. 65. The case discussed here is more striking because of the pleas contained in the letter. But the minutes contain others like it, such as a case that was summarily dismissed on January 23, 1941, from a woman, by then married, who had written to the Edmonton clinic asking for a reversal of her sterilization. The minutes only indicate “the board directed that [she] be advised that so far as it is concerned there is no way in which it can act further in the matter.” Eugenics Board Minutes, January 23, 1941, GR0008.0004F, Provincial Archives of Alberta.
66. 66. MacEachran, “Crime and Punishment: Address to the United Farm Women’s Association of Alberta,” reprint, Press Bulletin, May 6, 1932, 3.
67. 67. See, for example, the discussion of “guardians of the race” in Erin Moss, Henderikus J. Stam, and Diane Kattevilder, “From Suffrage to Sterilization: Eugenics and the Women’s Movement in 20th Century Alberta,” Canadian Psychology 54, no. 1 (2013): 105–14; and Wendy Kline, Building a Better Race: Gender, Sexuality and Eugenics from the Turn of the Century to the Baby Boom (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001).
68. 68. Ironically, he also argues that “we should be very careful to make sure that we are not depending too much upon legislation to raise and protect our moral standards.” MacEachran, “Crime and Punishment,” 3.
69. 69. John M. MacEachran. State Prisons: Radio Talk, December 1931, acc. no. 71-217, item 8, box 1, University of Alberta Archives; MacEachran, “Criminals Are Not Reformed by Brutality or Inhumanity,” Mental Health 7 (1932): 9–14.
70. 70. MacEachran, “Twenty-Five Years,” 89.
71. 71. MacEachran, “Twenty-Five Years,” 97.
72. 72. MacEachran, “Twenty-Five Years,” 113.
73. 73. John MacEachran, “A Philosopher Looks at Mental Hygiene,” Mental Hygiene 16 (1932): 101.
74. 74. Plato, Charmides, 156d6–157a3.
75. 75. MacEachran, “Philosopher Looks,” 113–14.
76. 76. MacEachran, “Philosopher Looks,” 119.
77. 77. Shortly thereafter, German doctors began euthanizing the mentally handicapped and the mentally ill as well as the criminally insane. Robert J. Lifton, The Nazi Doctors (New York: Basic Books, 1986) (see also Paul J. Weindling in chapter 8).
78. 78. See Lifton, Nazi Doctors.
79. 79. It should be noted that in other jurisdictions in North America, sterilizations also continued unabated after World War II, indeed, sometimes with greater enthusiasm. North Carolina, for example, began a new campaign after the end of the war. Kevin Begos, “The American Eugenics Movement after World War II (Part 1 of 3),” Indy Week, May 18, 2011, https://indyweek.com/news/american-eugenics-movement-world-war-ii-part-1-3/.
80. 80. Sterilization did not cease with the formal closing of the eugenics program. There are still cases before the courts of illegal and unwanted sterilizations that have been performed routinely, especially on women from First Nations in Canada. See “Class-Action Lawyer Told of 2 Coerced Sterilizations of Indigenous Women in Manitoba,” CBC News, November 14, 2018, https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/manitoba/manitoba-indigenous-women-forced-sterilization-lawsuit-1.4904421; and Kristy Kirkup, “Examine ‘Monstrous’ Allegations of Forced Sterilization of Indigenous Women: NDP,” CBC News, January 8, 2019, https://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/sterilization-indigenous-allegations-forced-1.4911837.

CHAPTER 2

1. 1. Muir v. Alberta (1996), 132 D.L.R. (4th) 695, Viet J, http://canlii.ca/t/1p6lq; M. Sadava and T. Arnold, “Sterilization Victim Receives Personal Apology from Klein,” Edmonton Journal, February 20, 1997, A4.
2. 2. See, further, Amy Dyrbye and Caroline Lyster, “Alberta Repeals the Sexual Sterilization Act,” Eugenics Archives, n.d., http://eugenicsarchive.ca/discover/timeline/517310e2eed5c60000000032.
3. 3. Patricia Sealy and Paul C. Whitehead, “Forty Years of Deinstitutionalization of Psychiatric Services in Canada: An Empirical Assessment,” Canadian Journal of Psychiatry 49, no. 4 (2004): 249–257.
4. 4. A similar exercise is included in a recent publication by the author of this chapter. See Douglas Wahlsten, Genes, Brain Function, and Behavior: What Genes Do, How They Malfunction, and Ways to Repair Damage (New York: Elsevier, 2019).
5. 5. Douglas Wahlsten, “Single-Gene Influences on Brain and Behavior,” Annual Review of Psychology 50, no. 6 (1999): 599–624; Wahlsten, “The Theory of Biological Intelligence: History and a Critical Appraisal,” in The General Factor of Intelligence: How General Is It?, ed. Robert Sternberg and Elena Grigorenko (Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum, 2002), 245–77.
6. 6. See Douglas Wahlsten, “Leilani Muir versus the Philosopher King: Eugenics on Trial in Alberta,” Genetica 99, no. 1 (1997): 185–98; Leilani Muir, A Whisper Past: Childless after Eugenic Sterilization in Alberta (Victoria, BC: Friesen Press, 2014).
7. 7. Douglas Wahlsten, Report on Eugenic Sterilization in Alberta from 1950 to 1968 (June 15, 1999) (Edmonton, AB: Department of Psychology, University of Alberta, 1999), 22–25.
8. 8. Wendy Kline, “Sterilization,” Eugenics Archives, September 14, 2013, http://eugenicsarchive.ca/discover/encyclopedia/5233e4e35c2ec500000000e0.
9. 9. James Tabery, “Genetics,” Eugenics Archives, April 29, 2014, http://eugenicsarchive.ca/discover/encyclopedia/535eec197095aa000000022c.
10. 10. Natalie Ball, “Galton, Sir Francis,” Eugenics Archives, n.d., http://eugenicsarchive.ca/database/documents/518c1ed54d7d6e0000000002.
11. 11. Peter J. Bowler, Evolution: The History of an Idea (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003).
12. 12. Galton, Hereditary Genius: An Inquiry into Its Laws and Consequences (London: Macmillan, 1869), 157.
13. 13. Galton, Inquiries into Human Faculty and Its Development (London: Macmillan, 1883), 17.
14. 14. Mendel, “Versuche ueber Pflanzenhybriden,” Verhandlungen des naturforschenden Vereines in Bruenn 4, no. 1 (1866): 3–47; Ulrich Kutschera and Niklas Karl J. Ulrich, “The Modern Theory of Biological Evolution: An Expanded Synthesis,” Naturwissenschaften 91, no. 2 (2004): 255–76.
15. 15. A[lfred] Sturtevant, A History of Genetics (New York: Harper & Row, 1965), 58–116.
16. 16. University of Alberta, Course Calendars, multiple years: 1917–24, 1950–51, 1955–56, 1960–61, 1965–66. University of Alberta Archives, Research & Collections Resource Facility, Edmonton.
17. 17. Thomas Hunt Morgan, “The Mechanism and Laws of Heredity,” in The Foundations of Experimental Psychology, ed. Carl Murchison (Worcester, MA: Clark University Press, 1929), 1–44.
18. 18. Ernest Brown Babcock, Genetics in Relation to Agriculture (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1918).
19. 19. John M. MacEachran, “Crime and Punishment: Address to the United Farm Women’s Association of Alberta,” reprint, Press Bulletin, May 6, 1932, 1–4; Hilda Pocock, “Eugenics Propaganda,” Eugenics Review 30, no. 1 (1938): 77; Russell C. Wallace, “The Quality of the Human Stock,” Canadian Medical Association Journal 31, no. 4 (1934): 427–30.
20. 20. Jay L. Lush, Animal Breeding Plans (Ames: Iowa State College Press, 1945); Altenburg, Genetics (New York: Henry Holt, 1945).
21. 21. It thereby relied on Alfred Binet and Théodore Simon, The Development of Intelligence in Children (The Binet-Simon Scale), trans. by Elizabeth S. Kite (Vineland, NJ: The Training School at Vineland, 1916).
22. 22. Lester D. Crow and Alice Crow, Educational Psychology (New York: American Book Co., 1948); Anne Anastasi, Differential Psychology, 3rd ed. (New York: Macmillan, 1958); Arthur I. Gates, Arthur T. Jersild, Thomas R. McConnell, and R[obert] C. Challman, Educational Psychology (New York: Macmillan, 1948).
23. 23. George D. Stoddard, The Meaning of Intelligence (New York: Macmillan, 1945); Lewis Madison Terman and Maud E. Merrill, Measuring Intelligence: A Guide to the Administration of the New Revised Stanford-Binet Tests of Intelligence (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1937); David Wechsler, The Measurement of Adult Intelligence, 3rd ed. (Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins, 1944).
24. 24. Joseph McVicker-Hunt, Intelligence and Experience (New York: Ronald Press, 1961).
25. 25. Anne Anastasi, Psychological Testing (New York: Macmillan, 1954).
26. 26. Luke Kersten, “Alberta Passes Sexual Sterilization Act,” Eugenics Archives, n.d., http://eugenicsarchives.ca/discover/timeline/5172e81ceed5c6000000001d.
27. 27. Mental Defectives Act, R.S.A. 1955, c. 199, s. 2(a).
28. 28. Sexual Sterilization Act, R.S.A. 1955, c. 194, s. 4(1).
29. 29. Sexual Sterilization Act, R.S.A. 1955, c. 194, s. 6(1).
30. 30. Lionel Penrose, The Biology of Mental Defect (London: Sidgwick and Jackson, 1949); Anastasi, Psychological Testing, 378–79; Wechsler, Measurement of Adult Intelligence, 31.
31. 31. Claudia Malacrida, A Special Hell: Institutional Life in Alberta’s Eugenic Years (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2015), 204.
32. 32. Howard Gardner, “Who Owns Intelligence?,” Atlantic Monthly, February 1999, 67–76; Robert J. Sternberg, “How Intelligent Is Intelligence Testing?,” Scientific American 9, no. 1 (1999): 12–17.
33. 33. Allan Chase, The Legacy of Malthus: The Social Costs of the New Scientific Racism (New York: Knopf, 1977).
34. 34. Alfred Binet, Modern Ideas about Children (1909), trans. Suzanne Heisler (1975; Albi, France: Les Presses de l’Atelier Graphique Saint-Jean, 1984).
35. 35. Binet, Modern Ideas, 105.
36. 36. Chase, Legacy of Malthus, 232–38; Stephen J. Gould, Mismeasure of Man, rev. ed. (New York: Norton, 1996).
37. 37. Lewis M. Terman and Maude Merville, The Measurement of Intelligence (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1916).
38. 38. Terman and Merrill, Measuring Intelligence, 4.
39. 39. Wechsler, Measurement of Adult Intelligence, 3.
40. 40. Wechsler, Measurement of Adult Intelligence, 3.
41. 41. Stoddard, Meaning of Intelligence, 3.
42. 42. McVicker-Hunt, Intelligence and Experience, 5, 11.
43. 43. David Gibson, “Involuntary Sterilization of the Mentally Retarded: A Western Canadian Phenomenon,” Canadian Psychiatric Association Journal 19, no. 1 (1974): 59–63;Eugenics Board Minutes Collection, Eugenics Board Minutes series, 1939–41, no. GR0008.0004F, “Transcript Excerpts from the Examination for Discovery.” Provincial Archives of Alberta, Edmonton.
44. 44. Edgar Altenburg, Genetics (New York: Henry Holt, 1945), 437–38.
45. 45. Gates et al., Educational Psychology.
46. 46. [Stanley Charles Tremayne] Clarke, Verner R. Nyberg, and [Walter H.] Worth, Technical Report on Edmonton Grade III Achievement 1956–1977 Comparisons (Edmonton: Alberta Advisory Committee on Educational Studies, 1978).
47. 47. Crow and Crow, Educational Psychology; Gates et al., Educational Psychology; Penrose, Biology of Mental Defect; Terman and Merrill, Measuring Intelligence; Wechsler, Measurement of Adult Intelligence; Wechsler, The Measurement of Adult Intelligence, 4th ed. (Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins, 1958); Anastasi, Differential Psychology.
48. 48. Transcript Excerpts from the Examination for Discovery by [Graham] Thomson, 55 and 311, questioned by Mr. [Allan] Garber, undated, 2–286; questioned by Garber, Oct–22, 1998, 293–544; questioned by Garber, June–14, 15, and 16, 1997, Eugenics Board Minutes Collection, Provincial Archives of Alberta, Edmonton.
49. 49. Penrose, Biology of Mental Defect, 119–21.
50. 50. David Wechsler, The Measurement of Adult Intelligence (Baltimore, MA: Williams & Wilkins, 1939; reprint Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins, 1958), 55. Citations henceforth refer to the reprint edition.
51. 51. Government of Alberta, Annual Report of the Department of Public Health (Edmonton: J. W. Jeffrey King’s Printer, 1955), 24.
52. 52. Government of Alberta, 1955 Annual Report, 25.
53. 53. Government of Alberta, Department of Education, Annual Report of the Division of Mental Health (Edmonton, 1955), 75–122, esp. 126.
54. 54. Penrose, Biology of Mental Defect, 125.
55. 55. Gibson, Transcript Excerpts from the Examination for Discovery, 428–429.
56. 56. Stoddard, Meaning of Intelligence; Anastasi, Differential Psychology, 378–79.
57. 57. David Wechsler, Measurement of Adult Intelligence, 47.
58. 58. Florence L. Goodenough, “The Measurement of Mental Growth in Childhood,” in Manual of Child Psychology, ed. Leonard Carmichael (New York: Wiley, 1954), 459–91.
59. 59. Thomas James Reid, “A Survey of the Language Achievement of Alberta School Children in Relation to Bilingualism, Sex, and Intelligence” (MEd thesis, University of Alberta, 1954), 67.
60. 60. Goodenough, “Measurement of Mental Growth,” 486.
61. 61. Timothy Christian, The Mentally Ill and Human Rights in Alberta: A Study of the Alberta Sexual Sterilization Act. Edmonton, AB: University of Alberta with the Assistance of Professor Burke Barker of the Faculty of Law, 1973. Wallace, “Quality of the Human Stock”; Douglas Wahlsten, “The Malleability of Intelligence Is Not Constrained by Heritability,” in Intelligence, Genes, and Success: Scientists Respond to the Bell Curve, ed. Bernie Devlin, Stephen E. Fienberg, Daniel P. Resnick, and Kathryn Roeder (New York: Copernicus, 1974), 71–87.
62. 62. Government of Alberta, Health Survey Committee, A Survey of Alberta’s Health (Edmonton: Department of Public Health, 1950).
63. 63. Government of Alberta, Department of Public Health, Annual Report of the Bureau of Vital Statistics (Edmonton, 1959), 188; Thomson, Transcript Excerpts from the Examination for Discovery, 128–129.
64. 64. Wahlsten, “Single-Gene Influences,” 601–3.
65. 65. Garland E. Allen, “Eugenics and Modern Biology: Critiques of Eugenics, 1910–1945,” Annals of Human Genetics 75, no. 3 (2011): 314–25.
66. 66. F. Clarke Fraser, “Medical Genetics in Pediatrics,” Journal of Pediatrics 44, no. 1 (1954): 85–103; Penrose, Biology of Mental Defect, 75; Sheldon C. Reed, Counseling in Medical Genetics (Philadelphia: Saunders, 1955), 84.
67. 67. Reed, Counseling in Medical Genetics; Hubert C. Soltan, ed., Medical Genetics in Canada: Evolution of a Hybrid Discipline: Essays on the Early History (London: University of Western Ontario, 1992).
68. 68. Robert J. Bridges and Neil Bradbury, “Cystic Fibrosis, Cystic Fibrosis Transmembrane Conductance Regulator and Drugs: Insights from Cellular Trafficking,” Handbook of Experimental Pharmacology 103, no. 1 (2018): 1–41.
69. 69. Tom Strachan and Andrew Reid, Human Molecular Genetics (Philadelphia and London: Garland Science, 2010), 345–80.
70. 70. Morgan, “Mechanism and Laws.”
71. 71. See also Douglas Wahlsten, “The Intelligence of Heritability,” Canadian Psychology 35, no. 2 (1994): 244–58.
72. 72. Kersten, “Alberta Passes Sexual Sterilization Act.”
73. 73. Lancelot Hogben, Nature and Nurture (London: Williams & Norgate, 1933), 65.
74. 74. Lush, Animal Breeding Plans, 126.
75. 75. Lush, Animal Breeding Plans, 126.
76. 76. John Burdon Sanderson Haldane, Heredity and Politics (London: Allen & Unwin, 1938), 79.
77. 77. Only recently has it become possible to identify pre-symptomatic carriers of Huntington’s disease using DNA methods. See also Kathleen L. Poston and David Eidelberg, “Network Biomarkers for the Diagnosis and Treatment of Movement Disorders,” Neurobiological Diseases 35, no. 1 (2009): 141–47.
78. 78. Douglas Wahlsten, “The Hunt for Gene Effects Pertinent to Behavioral Traits and Psychiatric Disorders: From Mouse to Human,” Developmental Psychobiology 54, no. 5 (2013): 475–92.
79. 79. See Lush, Animal Breeding Plans, chaps. 8, 12, 13; and Douglas S. Falconer, Introduction to Quantitative Genetics (Edinburgh: Oliver and Boyd, 1960).
80. 80. Government of Alberta, Department of Education, Fiftieth Annual Report (Edmonton, 1955).
81. 81. See Bernard Devlin, Michael Daniels, and Kathryn Roeder, “The Heritability of IQ,” Nature 388, no. 4 (1997): 468–70; Gilbert Gottlieb, Douglas Wahlsten, and Robert Lickliter, “The Significance of Biology for Human Development: A Developmental Psychobiological Systems View,” in Handbook of Child Psychology, vol. 1, Theoretical Models of Human Development, ed. Richard M. Lerner, 5th ed. (New York: Wiley, 1997), 233–73; Peter Schoenemann, “On Models and Muddles of Heritability,” Genetica 99, no. 1 (1997): 97–108; and Wahlsten, “Intelligence of Heritability.”
82. 82. John Fuller and W. Robert Thompson, Behavior Genetics (New York: Wiley, 1960), 110.
83. 83. Devlin, Daniels, and Roeder, “Heritability of IQ.”
84. 84. William H. Coull, “A Normative Survey of Reading Achievement of Alberta Children in Relation to Intelligence, Sex, Bilingualism, and Grade Placement” (MEd thesis, University of Alberta, 1957), 37.
85. 85. Government of Alberta, Department of Education, Fiftieth Annual Report.
86. 86. Penrose, Biology of Mental Defect, 6.
87. 87. See also Wahlsten, “Intelligence of Heritability.”
88. 88. Stoddard, Meaning of Intelligence, 69.
89. 89. Stoddard, Meaning of Intelligence; Harold Jones, “The Environment and Mental Development,” in Manual of Child Psychology, ed. Leonard Carmichael (New York: Wiley, 1954), 631–96; Anastasi, Differential Psychology; McVicker-Hunt, Intelligence and Experience.
90. 90. Thomas Hardy Leahey, A History of Modern Psychology (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2001), 334–50.
91. 91. Read D. Tuddenham, “Soldier Intelligence in World Wars I and II,” American Psychologist 3, no. 1 (1948): 54–56.
92. 92. Lewis M. Terman and Maud A. Merrill, Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale: Manual for the Third Revision Form L-M (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1960).
93. 93. Raymond Bernard Cattell, “Is National Intelligence Declining?,” Eugenics Review 28, no. 1 (1936–37): 181–203.
94. 94. Raymond Bernard Cattell, “The Fate of National Intelligence: Test of a Thirteen-Year Prediction,” Eugenics Review 42, no. 3 (1950): 136–48.
95. 95. Stoddard, Meaning of Intelligence; Reid, “Survey of the Language Achievement”; Anastasi, Differential Psychology.
96. 96. Bradford J. Rennie, The Rise of Agrarian Democracy: The United Farmers and Farm Women of Alberta, 1909–1921 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2000), 244.
97. 97. Stoddard, Meaning of Intelligence, 72; Anastasi, Differential Psychology, 378–79.
98. 98. Marie Skodak and Harold M. Skeels, “A Final Follow-Up Study of One Hundred Adopted Children,” Journal of Genetic Psychology 75, no. 1 (1949): 85–125.
99. 99. McVicker-Hunt, Intelligence and Experience, 12–13.
100. 100. Douglas Wahlsten, Genes, Brain Function, and Behavior: What Genes Do, How They Malfunction, and Ways to Repair Damage (London, UK: Elsevier, 2019), 178–180.
101. 101. Gottlieb, Wahlsten, and Lickliter, “Significance of Biology.”
102. 102. John R. Flynn, “Massive IQ Gains in 14 Nations: What IQ Tests Really Measure,” Psychological Bulletin 101, no. 2 (1987): 171–91.
103. 103. Randall Hansen and Desmond King, Sterilized by the State: Eugenics, Race, and the Population Scare in Twentieth Century North America (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2013).
104. 104. Gerald Robertson, at Muir trial, June 26, 1995, cited in Muir, A Whisper Past, 136.
105. 105. IQ Test Comparisons from the Leilani Muir Case, 1957 to 1989; in: Muir, A Whisper Past, 208–09.
106. 106. Personal file of Ilsa Anderchuk (pseudonym), created July 8, 1949, Willow Creek RCMP, Eugenics Board Minutes, Provincial Archives of Alberta.
107. 107. Quoted in Erika Dyck, Facing Eugenics: Reproduction, Sterilization, and the Politics of Choice (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2013), 3.
108. 108. Alexandra Stern, Telling Genes: The Story of Genetic Counseling in America (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2012).

CHAPTER 3

1. 1. See, for example, Karolina Kowalewski and Yasmin Mayne, “The Translation of Eugenic Ideology into Public Health Policy: The Case of Alberta and Saskatchewan,” in The Proceedings of the 18th Annual History of Medicine Days Conference 2009, ed. Lisa Peterman, Kerry Sun, and Frank W. Stahnisch (Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2012), 53–74.
2. 2. Clarence B. Farrar, “Editorial,” Canadian Public Health Journal 22, no. 1 (1931): 92–93.
3. 3. Kowalewski and Mayne, “Translation of Eugenic Ideology,” 53.
4. 4. Kowalewski and Mayne, “Translation of Eugenic Ideology,” 54.
5. 5. See Glynis Whiting, dir., The Sterilization of Leilani Muir (Edmonton: National Film Board of Canada, 1996).
6. 6. Farrar, “Editorial,” 92–93.
7. 7. See also Erika Dyck, Facing Eugenics: Reproduction, Sterilization, and the Politics of Choice (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2013), 39–41.
8. 8. Patricia Dantonio, “Histories of Nursing: The Power and the Possibilities,” Nursing Outlook 58, no. 2 (2010): 208.
9. 9. “Editorial,” Edmonton Journal, March 1, 1996, 1.
10. 10. Viet J. quoted in Whiting, The Sterilization of Leilani Muir.
11. 11. “Editorial,” Edmonton Journal, January 26, 1996, 1. Alberta was not alone in adopting a policy of eugenics. Many European countries were being criticized in the press for taking a similar position to that taken by the Alberta government in 1928. See Barbara Amiel, “Sweden’s Shameful Eugenics Policies,” Maclean’s, September 8, 1997, 13; “Scandals over Sterilization,” Maclean’s, September 8, 1997, 42; Edmonton Journal, August 29, 1997, A15, and Edmonton Journal, September 5, 1997, A18.
12. 12. Statutes of Alberta. 18 George V, 1928, 117.
13. 13. “Editorial,” Edmonton Journal, January 29, 1996, n. p.
14. 14. For example, Christopher Maggs, “A History of Nursing: A History of Caring?,” Journal of Advanced Nursing 22, no. 6 (1996): 630–35; and Janet C. Ross-Kerr, Prepared to Care (Edmonton: University of Alberta Press, 1998).
15. 15. Quoted in Whiting, The Sterilization of Leilani Muir.
16. 16. See Thomas Olson, “Laying Claim to Caring: Nursing and the Language of Training, 1915–1917,” Nursing Outlook 41, no. 2 (1993): 68–72.
17. 17. On the role of physicians in relation to women and women patients, see Wendy Mitchinson, The Nature of Their Bodies: Women and Their Doctors in Victorian Canada (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1991).
18. 18. Ian Stewart, “Commandeering Time: The Ideological Status of Time in the Social Darwinism of Herbert Spencer,” Australian Journal of Politics and History 57, no. 4 (2011): 389–402.
19. 19. Francis Galton, Essays in Eugenics (London: Eugenics Education Society, 1909), 35–36.
20. 20. Carol Lee Bacchi, “Race Regeneration and Social Purity: A Study of the Social Attitudes of Canada’s English-Speaking Suffragists,” in Readings in Canadian History: Post-Confederation, ed. R. Douglas Francis and Donald B. Smith (Toronto: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1986), 309. See also Birgit Kirkebaek, “Da de andssvage blev farlige” [When the Mentally Deficient Became Dangerous]. (PhD diss, Forlaget Socpol, Copenhagen, Denmark, 1993).
21. 21. Bacchi, “Race Regeneration and Social Purity,” 310.
22. 22. Marianna Valverde, The Age of Light, Soap, and Water: Moral Reform in English Canada, 1885–1925 (Toronto: McClelland & Stewart, 2008), 93.
23. 23. Kowalewski and Mayne, “Translation of Eugenic Ideology,” 56.
24. 24. Kowalewski and Mayne, “Translation of Eugenic Ideology,” 56.
25. 25. Kowalewski and Mayne, “Translation of Eugenic Ideology,” 57.
26. 26. Ian Robert Dowbiggin, “ ‘Keeping This Young Country Sane’: C. K. Clarke, Immigration Restriction, and Canadian Psychiatry, 1890–1925,” Canadian Historical Review 76, no. 4 (1995): 598–627.
27. 27. Charles C. Roland, Clarence Meredith Hincks: Mental Health Crusader (Toronto: Oxford University Press, 1990).
28. 28. Dyck, Facing Eugenics, 39–41.
29. 29. David MacLennan, “Beyond the Asylum: Professionalization and the Mental Hygiene Movement in Canada, 1914–1928,” Canadian Bulletin of Medical History 4, no. 1 (1987): 7–23, esp. 15.
30. 30. Angus McLaren, Our Own Master Race: Eugenics in Canada, 1885–1945 (Toronto: McClelland & Stewart, 1990), 93.
31. 31. For a full examination of these developments, see Terry L. Chapman, “Early Eugenics Movements in Western Canada,” Alberta History 25, no. 1 (1977): 13–14.
32. 32. Dyck, Facing Eugenics, 6–7.
33. 33. Bradford Rennie, The Rise of Agrarian Democracy: The United Farmers and Farm Women of Alberta, 1909–1921 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2000), 31.
34. 34. Rennie, Rise of Agrarian Democracy, 31.
35. 35. Rennie, Rise of Agrarian Democracy, 31.
36. 36. United Farm Women of Alberta (UFWA) Papers, M1749, file 44, Glenbow Archives, Calgary.
37. 37. Carol Lee Bacchi, Liberation Deferred? The Ideas of the English-Canadian Suffragists 1877–1918 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1983), 319.
38. 38. Dyck, Facing Eugenics, 51.
39. 39. Dyck, Facing Eugenics, 52.
40. 40. Dyck, Facing Eugenics, 52–3.
41. 41. UFWA Papers, Glenbow Archives, Calgary.
42. 42. Howard Palmer and Tamara Palmer, Alberta: A New History (Edmonton: Hurtig, 1990), 212.
43. 43. Mary Myskiw, “The Influence of the Alberta Association of Registered Nurses on Health Care Policy from 1916 to 1950” (master’s thesis, University of Alberta, 1992), 75–76.
44. 44. Myskiw, “Influence of the Alberta Association of Registered Nurses,” 71, 86.
45. 45. Myskiw, “Influence of the Alberta Association of Registered Nurses,” 88.
46. 46. Sharon Richardson, “Political Women, Professional Nurses and the Creation of Alberta’s District Nursing Service, 1919–1925,” Nursing History Review 6, no. 1 (1998): 44.
47. 47. Myskiw, “Influence of the Alberta Association of Registered Nurses,” 90.
48. 48. Richardson, “Political Women,” 35–36.
49. 49. Richardson, “Political Women,” 39.
50. 50. Richardson, “Political Women,” 44.
51. 51. Richardson, “Political Women,” 45.
52. 52. Ina J. Bramadat and Marion I. Saydak, “Nursing on the Canadian Prairies, 1900–1930: Effects of Immigration,” Nursing History Review 1, no. 1 (1993): 106.
53. 53. Bramadat and Saydak, “Nursing on the Canadian Prairies,” 107.
54. 54. Public Health Nursing Division, Public Health Nursing in Manitoba 1916–1936 (Winnipeg: Department of Health and Public Welfare, 1936), 6.
55. 55. Bramadat and Saydak, “Nursing on the Canadian Prairies,” 110.
56. 56. Bramadat and Saydak, “Nursing on the Canadian Prairies,” 110.
57. 57. Dyck, Facing Eugenics, 45.
58. 58. Elizabeth C. Koester, “An Evil Hitherto Unchecked: Eugenics and the 1917 Ontario Royal Commission on the Care and Control of the Mentally Defective and Feebleminded,” Canadian Bulletin of Medical History 33, no. 1 (2016): 59–81.
59. 59. Koester, “An Evil Hitherto Unchecked,” 69.
60. 60. Amy Samson, “Eugenics in the Community: United Farm Women of Alberta, Public Health Nursing, Teaching, Social Work, and Sexual Sterilization in Alberta, 1928–1972” (PhD diss., University of Saskatchewan, 2014).
61. 61. Unpublished manuscript by Robert Barritt, History of United Farm Women, 1934, 34, M1749, File 45, Glenbow Archives, Calgary.
62. 62. See Ian M. Clarke quoted in K. Randall MacLean and Ethel T. Kibblewhite, “Sexual Sterilization in Alberta,” Canadian Public Health Journal 28, no. 5 (1937): 587–90.
63. 63. Quoted in Whiting, The Sterilization of Leilani Muir.
64. 64. Georgina Taylor, “Ground for Common Action: Violet McNaughton’s Agrarian Feminism and the Origins of the Farm Women’s Movement in Canada” (PhD diss., Carleton University, 1997).
65. 65. “Immigration Report” by UFWA, Fifteenth Annual Convention, 1929, M1749, File 44, Glenbow Archives, Calgary.
66. 66. Eugenics Board of Alberta report, by the secretary of the UFWA, Eighteenth Convention, 1929, 42–45, M1749, File 44, Glenbow Archives, Calgary.
67. 67. Jana Grekul, Harvey Krahn, and Dave Odynak, “Sterilizing the ‘Feeble-Minded’: Eugenics in Alberta, Canada, 1929–1972,” Journal of Historical Sociology 17, no. 4 (2004): 363.
68. 68. Grekul, Krahn, and Odynak, “Sterilizing the ‘Feeble-Minded,’ ” 362.
69. 69. Tim Christian, “The Mentally Ill and Human Rights in Alberta: A Study of the Alberta Sexual Sterilization Act” (University of Alberta with the assistance of Professor W. M. Barker of the Faculty of Law, 1974), 132.
70. 70. Dyck, Facing Eugenics, 72.
71. 71. Department of Public Health annual report, by Department of Public Health, 1937, Department of Public Health fond. Accession no. 86.36, RPC 87/230, Provincial Archives of Alberta, Edmonton; Eugenics Board of Alberta report, by the secretary of the UFWA, Eighteenth Convention, 1929, 78, M1749, File 44, Glenbow Archives, Calgary.
72. 72. McLaren, Our Own Master Race, 216n64.
73. 73. Leslie Bell, “Nurses and Their Attitude towards Sex,” Canadian Nurse 24, no. 10 (1928): 515–28, esp. 525.
74. 74. James C. Whorton, “The Solitary Vice: The Superstition that Masturbation Could Cause Mental Illness,” Western Journal of Medicine 175, no. 1 (2001): 66–68.
75. 75. Elizabeth W. Odell, “Eliminating the Unfit from the School of Nursing,” Canadian Nurse 11, no. 12 (1929): 723–24.
76. 76. Mary Millman, “Special Classes as a Factor in Health,” Canadian Public Health Journal 21, no. 3 (1930): 355–57; Marion Lindeburgh, “The Educational Objective of Public Health Nursing,” Canadian Public Health Journal 23, no. 3 (1932): 327–30; Lindeburgh, “Why Canada is Healthier …,” Canadian Public Health Journal 30, no. 1 (1939): 11.
77. 77. Farrar, “Editorial,” 93.
78. 78. “A True Story,” Canadian Nurse 11, no. 10 (1929): 629. For further discussion of this topic, see McLaren, Our Own Master Race; and Valverde, Age of Light.
79. 79. E. Wayne MacKinnon, “Wide-Awake,” Canadian Nurse 6, no. 5 (1925): 247–48.
80. 80. Adelaide M. Plumptre, “Caught Napping,” Canadian Nurse 6, no. 1 (1925): 5–8.
81. 81. Bramadat and Saydak, “Nursing on the Canadian Prairies.”
82. 82. Tony Cashman, Heritage of Service: The History of Nursing in Alberta (Edmonton: Alberta Association of Registered Nurses, 1966), 127, 150, 159, 163.
83. 83. Barritt, History of United Farm Women, 5–7.
84. 84. UFWA Eighteenth Annual Convention report, by the secretary of the UFWA, Eighteenth Convention, 1929, 45, M1749, File 44, Glenbow Archives, Calgary.
85. 85. For further discussion, see Ian M. Clarke quoted in MacLean and Kibblewhite, “Sexual Sterilization in Alberta.”
86. 86. Kitchener-based businessman Alvin Ratz Kaufman (1885–1975), a self-proclaimed eugenicist, hired women from across Canada to promote the use of birth control packages that he distributed through the philanthropy of his Parents’ Information Bureau. See McLaren, Our Own Master Race, 77; and Catherine Annau, “Eager Eugenicists: A Reappraisal of the Birth Control Society in Hamilton,” Histoire Sociale / Social History 27, no. 53 (1995): 111–33.
87. 87. Linda Revie, “More Than Just Boots! The Eugenic and Commercial Concerns behind A. R. Kaufman’s Birth Controlling Activities,” Canadian Bulletin of Medical History 23, no. 1 (2006): 119–43.
88. 88. Anne Hammill’s (b. 1914?) papers are in author’s possession, as well as an audiotaped interview conducted by Patty White in Calgary (1984).
89. 89. Papers by Anne Hammill, Diana Mansell, Calgary, Alberta, Canada.
90. 90. Interview with Patty White, 1984, Diana Mansell, Calgary, Alberta, Canada.
91. 91. Annau, “Eager Eugenicists,” 116–19.
92. 92. Hard evidence is virtually unobtainable due to non-inclusion in relevant primary and secondary sources.
93. 93. Dyck, Facing Eugenics, 79.
94. 94. Dyck, Facing Eugenics, 79.
95. 95. Dyck, Facing Eugenics, 80.
96. 96. Annual Reports of Public Health (Edmonton; Province of Alberta), J. W. Jeffrey, King’s Printer, 1940 (printed copy), Department of Public Health fond. Accession no. 86.36, RPC 87/230, Provincial Archives of Alberta, Edmonton.
97. 97. Edmonton Journal, December 14, 1995, 1.
98. 98. Hilde Steppe, “Historical Research in Nursing,” 13th Meeting of the Workgroup of European Nurse Researchers for National Representatives, September 1990, 312.
99. 99. Steppe, “Historical Research in Nursing,” 308.
100. 100. Steppe, “Historical Research in Nursing,” 314.
101. 101. Quoted in Cashman, Heritage of Service, 167.
102. 102. Cashman, Heritage of Service, 168.
103. 103. Oral history interviews with retired nurses and instructors previously employed at the Alberta Hospitals located in Edmonton and Ponoka, August, 1996, Diana Mansell, Calgary.
104. 104. Olson, “Laying Claim to Caring.”
105. 105. Dyck, Facing Eugenics, 228–29.
106. 106. Alvin Finkel, Social Policy and Practice in Canada (Waterloo, ON: Wilfrid Laurier University Press, 2006).
107. 107. Judy Coburn, “I See and Am Silent: A Short History of Nursing in Ontario,” in Health and Canadian Society: Sociological Perspectives, ed. Janice Acton, Penny Goldsmith, and Bonnie Shepherd (Toronto: Fitzhenry & Whiteside, 1981), 129.

CHAPTER 4

1. 1. Stefan Kuehl, The Nazi Connection: Eugenics, American Racism, and German National Socialism (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), 6. Positive eugenics includes the encouragement of procreation by individuals and groups who are viewed as possessing desirable characteristics and genes (e.g., financial and political stimuli, in vitro fertilization, egg transplanting and cloning). Negative eugenics involves discouraging and decreasing procreation by individuals and groups who are viewed as having inferior or undesirable characteristics and genes (e.g., coercive or medically indicated abortions, sterilization, methods of family planning).
2. 2. Ian Robert Dowbiggin, Keeping America Sane: Psychiatry and Eugenics in the United States and Canada, 1880–1940 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2003), 77.
3. 3. Kuehl, Nazi Connection, 17.
4. 4. Garland E. Allen, “The Ideology of Elimination: American and German Eugenics, 1900–1945,” in Medicine and Medical Ethics in Nazi Germany: Origins, Practices, Legacies, ed. Francis R. Nicosia and Jonathan Huener (New York: Berghahn Books, 2002), 19.
5. 5. André Dupras, “Public Attitudes towards the Sterilization of Handicapped People,” in Sterilization and Mental Handicap: Proceedings of a Symposium Sponsored by the National Institute on Mental Retardation and the Ontario Association for the Mentally Retarded, ed. Mental Institute on Mental Retardation, Ontario Association for the Mentally Retarded (Downsview, ON: National Institute on Mental Retardation, 1980), 65.
6. 6. Robert N. Proctor, Racial Hygiene: Medicine under the Nazis (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1980), 145, 148. The Weimar government established “counselling centers” that advocated for marriage based on principals of racial hygiene, and physicians and geneticists during this period were the first to recommend that all citizens carry “health passes” and that “racial offices” be established.
7. 7. Henry Friedlander, Origins of Nazi Genocide: From Euthanasia to the Final Solution (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina, 1995), 26.
8. 8. Proctor, Racial Hygiene, 131.
9. 9. Dowbiggin, Keeping America Sane, xiii.
10. 10. Kuehl, Nazi Connection, 20. A number of private organizations, such as the Rockefeller Foundation and the Carnegie Foundation, financed eugenics research in Germany between 1920 and 1934.
11. 11. Dowbiggin, Keeping America Sane, 36.
12. 12. The western provinces in Canada were geographically closer to the United States than to Ontario and as a result were strongly influenced by American political and cultural trends in the 1920s.
13. 13. Jana Grekul, Harvey Krahn, and Dave Odynak, “Sterilizing the ‘Feeble-Minded’: Eugenics in Alberta, Canada, 1929–1972,” Journal of Historical Sociology 17, no. 4 (2004): 362; Angus McLaren, Our Own Master Race: Eugenics in Canada, 1885–1945 (Toronto: McClelland & Stewart, 1990), 99.
14. 14. Grekul, Krahn, and Odynak, “Sterilizing the ‘Feeble-Minded,’ ” 362. Among the members of the UFWA who advocated for sterilization legislation was Nellie McClung (1873–1951), the well-known Canadian feminist, social activist, and politician. Other groups active in the pro-sterilization campaign were the Women’s Christian Temperance Movement Union and the Alberta Department of Public Health. On the role of women suffragists in the Alberta eugenics movement, see Erin Moss, Henderikus J. Stam, and Diane Kattevilder, “From Suffrage to Sterilization: Eugenics and the Women’s Movement in 20th Century Alberta,” Canadian Psychology 54, no. 1 (2013): 105–14.
15. 15. McLaren, Our Own Master Race, 100. The existing literature does not address the question of who exactly in the Legislative Assembly objected to the original Sexual Sterilization Act and on what grounds.
16. 16. The act was passed despite advice from the British House of Lords on the illegality of such a measure.
17. 17. Jana Grekul, “A Well-Oiled Machine: Alberta’s Eugenics Program, 1928–1972,” Alberta History 59, no. 1 (2011): 16. Sterilization operations in Alberta hospitals consisted of vasectomies, salpingectomies (tubal ligation), orchiectomies (removal of testes), oophorectomies (removal of the ovaries), and sometimes hysterectomies. On sterilization procedures, see Mary E. Frost, “Sterilization in Alberta: A Summary of the Cases Presented to the Eugenics Board for the Province of Alberta from 1929 to 1941” (master’s thesis, University of Alberta, 1942). For a “genetic critique” of eugenic science and Alberta’s sterilization legislation, see Kennedy G. McWhirter and Judy Weijer, “The Alberta Sterilization Act: A Genetic Critique,” University of Toronto Law Journal 19, no. 3 (1969): 424–31.
18. 18. Timothy Caulfield and Gerald Robertson, “Eugenic Policies in Alberta: From the Systematic to the Systemic?,” Alberta Law Review 35, no. 1 (1996): 61.
19. 19. Grekul, Krahn, and Odynak, “Sterilizing the ‘Feeble-Minded,’ ” 366–75. Of the cases presented to the AEB, 54 percent were women (in 1931 only 45 percent of Alberta’s population was female), 19 percent were eastern European (although they represented 17 percent of the province’s population), and 6 percent were Indigenous (who accounted for only 2 percent of the population). On gender differences and the overrepresentation of women, see Jana Grekul, “Sterilization in Alberta, 1928 to 1972: Gender Matters,” Canadian Review of Sociology 45, no. 3 (2008): 247–66.
20. 20. Allen, “Ideology of Elimination,” 34.
21. 21. Sheila Faith Weiss, “The Race Hygiene Movement in Germany,” Osiris, 2nd ser., 3, no. 1 (1987): 193–236.
22. 22. Kuehl, Nazi Connection, 82.
23. 23. Antoine d’Eschambault, Eugenical Sterilization (Winnipeg: Canadian Publishers, 1937), 74.
24. 24. D’Eschambault, Eugenical Sterilization, 19.
25. 25. Grekul, Krahn, and Odynak, “Sterilizing the ‘Feeble-Minded,’ ” 376.
26. 26. Although sterilization operations became increasingly unpopular in the years following the Second World War, the eugenics movement was already being severely discredited by a new generation of doctors and social advocates as early as the mid-1930s.
27. 27. Timothy J. Christian, “Mentally Ill and Human Rights in Alberta: A Study of the Alberta Sterilization Act” (honours thesis, University of Alberta, 1974), 25.
28. 28. Christian, “Mentally Ill and Human Rights,” 28.
29. 29. Edmonton Bulletin, April 1, 1937, n. p.
30. 30. Sexual Sterilization Act Amendment Act, S.A. 1937, c. 47. The 1937 Amendment made virtually every inmate of Alberta mental institutions vulnerable to forced sterilization. The Amendment also made castration permissible.
31. 31. The 1942 Amendment, which also lacks scholarly study, permitted the sterilization of individuals suffering from epilepsy and Huntington’s disease. On the abolishment of the act and the Leilani Muir trial (1995–96) that followed, see Douglas Wahlsten, “Leilani Muir versus the Philosopher King: Eugenics on Trial in Alberta,” Genetica 99, no. 1 (1997): 185–98.
32. 32. Studies have been conducted by a number of historians, sociologists, psychologists, and administrators at the University of Alberta, including Timothy Caulfield, Gerald Robertson, Douglas Wahlsten, Jana Grekul, Harvey Krahn, David Odynak, and Terry Chapman, as well as prominent gender historian Angus McLaren. For a list of publications on Alberta’s sexual sterilization program, see Grekul, “Sterilization in Alberta.”
33. 33. University of Alberta law professor Gerald Robertson has argued that legalized sterilization in the late 1920s and early 1930s was likely in step with the public mood at the time. See Richard Cairney, “ ‘Democracy Was Never Intended for Degenerates’: Alberta’s Flirtation with Eugenics Comes Back to Haunt It,” Canadian Medical Association Journal 155, no. 7 (1997): 789.
34. 34. The only other Canadian province to pass an involuntary sterilization law was British Columbia, which did so in 1933; however, considerably fewer sterilization operations were performed there. See Richard Foulkes, “British Columbia Mental Health Services: Historical Perspective to 1961,” Canadian Medical Association Journal 85, no. 6 (1961): 649–55.
35. 35. Terry L. Chapman, “Early Eugenic Movements in Western Canada,” Alberta History 25, no. 1 (1977): 9.
36. 36. Dowbiggin, Keeping America Sane, 141. The 1869 Immigration Act was highly discriminatory, favouring British, American, Scandinavian, and Protestant immigrants over southern and eastern Europeans and Catholics. See Ellen Keith, ‘“Human Wreckage from Foreign Lands’: A Study of the Ethnic Victims of the Alberta Sterilization Act,” Constellations 2, no. 2 (2011): 81–89.
37. 37. McLaren, Our Own Master Race, 47.
38. 38. Christian, Mentally Ill and Human Rights, 5.
39. 39. Chapman, “Early Eugenic Movements,” 9; Valerie Knowles, Strangers at Our Gates: Canadian Immigration and Immigration Policy, 1540–1990 (Toronto: Dundurn Press, 1992).
40. 40. Chapman, “Early Eugenic Movements,” 13.
41. 41. Christian, Mentally Ill and Human Rights, 8.
42. 42. Ninette Kelley and Michael Trebilcock, The Making of the Mosaic: A History of Canadian Immigration Policy (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1998), 216.
43. 43. The most famous of these policies were order-in-council PC 695, passed in 1931, that essentially ended Canada’s sixty-year open-door policy on immigration.
44. 44. Statistics Canada, “Immigrant Arrivals in Canada, 1892 to 1946,” Canada Yearbook (Ottawa: Government of Canada, 1947).
45. 45. Kelley and Trebilcock, Making of the Mosaic, 227; see also Barbara Roberts, Whence They Came: Deportation from Canada, 1900–1935 (Ottawa: University of Ottawa Press, 1988).
46. 46. Statistics Canada, “Destinations of Immigrants into Canada, by Provinces, Calendar Years 1929 to 1936,” Canada Yearbook (Ottawa: Government of Canada, 1937).
47. 47. Statistics Canada, “Destinations.”
48. 48. Statistics Canada, “Nationalities of Immigrants, Calendar Years 1931 to 1935,” Canada Year Book (Ottawa, 1937). Only 20 percent of immigrants who entered Alberta in the mid-1930s were from eastern Europe, or approximately two hundred per year.
49. 49. Christian, Mentally Ill and Human Rights.
50. 50. “Immigration Activities Will Be Curbed,” Edmonton Journal, March 7, 1929, 1.
51. 51. “Editorial,” Calgary Daily Herald, September 11, 1930, 8; Calgary Daily Herald, September 8, 1930, 4.
52. 52. “Sterilization Bill Passes Third Reading,” Edmonton Bulletin, March 7, 1928, 1.
53. 53. “Editorial,” Edmonton Bulletin, March 26, 1927, 1.
54. 54. “Editorial,” Edmonton Bulletin, December 9, 1935, 2.
55. 55. “Sterilization Board Given Wide Powers,” Calgary Daily Herald, April 1, 1937, 4. Many other newspapers published articles and editorials on Alberta’s sterilization law, including the Montréal Gazette (February 7, 1934, p. 3) and the Buckingham Post (March 12, 1937, p. 5).
56. 56. Letitia Fairfield, The Case against Sterilization, pamphlet (London, ON: Catholic Truth Society, 1934); Helen MacMurchy, Sterilization? Birth Control? A Book for Family Welfare and Safety (Toronto: Macmillan, 1934); d’Eschambault, Eugenical Sterilization, 69. D’Eschambault argued that the science of eugenics was based on “dubious theories” and that Alberta’s Sexual Sterilization Act resembled eugenics laws in Nazi Germany.
57. 57. McLaren, Our Own Master Race, 10.
58. 58. “Whither Germany?,” editorial, Edmonton Journal, July 16, 1933, 4. The other German legislation and programs included the Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service, passed on April 7, 1933; the Jewish boycott of April 1, 1933; and the “25 points of the Nazi program.”
59. 59. “Nazis Bar Jews from Citizenship,” Calgary Daily Herald, September 16, 1935, 1; “New Laws Persecute German Jews,” Calgary Daily Herald, September 16, 1935, 2.
60. 60. “Nazis Bar Jews,” 1; “New Laws Persecute German Jews,” 2.
61. 61. Bruce Kidd, “Canadian Opposition to the 1936 Olympics in Germany,” Sport in Society 16, no. 4 (2013): 432.
62. 62. McLaren, Our Own Master Race, 166; Tommy C. Douglas, The Making of a Socialist: The Recollections of T.C. Douglas, ed. Lewis Thomas (Edmonton: University of Alberta Press, 1984), 108.
63. 63. “Against Sterilization,” originally published in the New York Times, January 26, 1936, 8.
64. 64. “Sterilization Forced upon Her,” Washington Post, January 7, 1936, 1; “Woman Is Saved from Sterilization,” Washington Post, January 23, 1936, 4.
65. 65. McLaren, Our Own Master Race, 119.
66. 66. Grekul, Krahn, and Odynak, “Sterilizing the ‘Feeble-Minded,’ ” 362.
67. 67. Quoted in McLaren, Our Own Master Race, 119.
68. 68. Christian, Mentally Ill and Human Rights, 7. Hincks was also general director of the Canadian National Committee on Mental Hygiene.
69. 69. Christian, Mentally Ill and Human Rights, 8.
70. 70. Christian, Mentally Ill and Human Rights, 28.
71. 71. Haudley quoted in Caulfield and Robertson, “Eugenic Policies in Alberta,” 62.
72. 72. Haudley quoted in Caulfield and Robertson, “Eugenic Policies in Alberta,” 63.
73. 73. Medicine Hat News, February 24, 1928.
74. 74. Christian, Mentally Ill and Human Rights, 23.
75. 75. Christian, Mentally Ill and Human Rights, 11.
76. 76. Christian, Mentally Ill and Human Rights, 9.
77. 77. See Deborah C. Park, “From the Case Files: Reconstructing a History of Involuntary Sterilization,” Disability and Society 13, no. 3 (1998): 317–42; and Wahlsten, “Leilani Muir.”
78. 78. Park, “From the Case Files”; Wahlsten, “Leilani Muir.”
79. 79. This is a common assumption: that the support for sterilization from key individuals and organizations reflected the opinions of the Alberta population at large. See Park, “From the Case Files,” 318.
80. 80. Further research is needed on the definition and diagnosis of “mental deficiency” in Alberta during the 1930s, as is more detailed knowledge regarding the overrepresentation of specific ethnic groups in sterilization procedures.
81. 81. On the Catholic Church in the province, see Sheila Ross, ‘“For God and Canada’: The Early Years of the Catholic Women’s League in Alberta,” Historical Studies 62, no. 1 (1996): 89–108; see also Erna Kurbegović, “Eugenics in Comparative Perspective: Explaining Manitoba and Alberta’s Divergence on Eugenics Policy, 1910s to the 1930s” (PhD diss., University of Calgary, 2019).
82. 82. Jana Grekul has asked many of these questions in her work and has spent considerable time studying the 1937 Amendment and the longevity of Alberta’s sterilization practices. See Grekul, “Sterilization in Alberta”; and “A Well-Oiled Machine.” Recent publications on Alberta’s history of sterilization include Robert A. Wilson, “The Role of Oral History in Surviving a Eugenic Past,” in Beyond Testimony and Trauma: Oral History in the Aftermath of Mass Violence, ed. Steven High (Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 2015), 119–38; and Ericka Dyck, Facing the History of Eugenics: Reproduction, Sterilization and the Politics of Choice in 20th Century Alberta (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2013).

CHAPTER 5

1. 1. “Editorial,” Journals of the Legislative Assembly of Manitoba: Nineteenth Legislative Assembly (1933), 20, Manitoba Legislative Library Collection, Winnipeg.
2. 2. “Editorial,” Journals of the Legislative Assembly of Manitoba: Nineteenth Legislative Assembly (1933), 198-199, Manitoba Legislative Library Collection, Winnipeg.
3. 3. See, for example, Timothy Christian, “The Mentally Ill and Human Rights in Alberta: Study of the Alberta Sexual Sterilization Act” (honours thesis, University of Alberta, 1974); Erin Moss, Henderikus J. Stam, and Diane Kattevilder, “From Suffrage to Sterilization: Eugenics and the Women’s Movement in 20th Century Alberta,” Canadian Psychology 54, no. 1 (2013): 105–14.
4. 4. See, for example, Terry L. Chapman, “Early Eugenics Movement in Western Canada,” Alberta History 25, no. 1 (1977): 9–18; Angus McLaren, Our Own Master Race: Eugenics in Canada, 1885–1945 (Toronto: McClelland & Stewart, 1990); Moss, Stam, and Kattevilder, “From Suffrage to Sterilization”; and Sheila Gibbons, ‘“Our Power to Remodel Civilization’: The Development of Eugenic Feminism in Alberta, 1909–1921,” Canadian Bulletin of Medical History 31, no. 1 (2014): 123–42.
5. 5. For a discussion of eugenics in Alberta in the postwar period, see Douglas Wahlsten, “Leilani Muir versus the Philosopher King: Eugenics on Trial in Alberta,” Genetica 99, no. 1 (1997): 185–98; Jana Grekul, Harvey Krahn, and Dave Odynak, “Sterilizing the ‘Feeble-Minded’: Eugenics in Alberta, Canada, 1929–1972,” Journal of Historical Sociology 17, no. 4 (2004): 358–84; Jana Grekul, “Sterilization in Alberta, 1928 to 1972: Gender Matters,” Canadian Review of Sociology 45, no. 3 (2008): 247–66; and Amy Samson, “Eugenics in the Community: Gendered Professions and Eugenic Sterilization in Alberta, 1928–1972,” Canadian Bulletin of Medical History 31, no. 1 (2014): 143–63. On reproductive rights and reproductive technologies, see Ian Dowbiggin, The Sterilization Movement and Global Fertility in the Twentieth Century (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008); and Erika Dyck, Facing Eugenics: Reproduction, Sterilization, and the Politics of Choice (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2013).
6. 6. For further reading, see Charles Darwin, On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, Or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life (London: J. Murray, 1859).
7. 7. Philippa Levine and Alison Bashford, “Introduction: Eugenics and the Modern World,” in The Oxford Handbook of the History of Eugenics, eds. Alison Bashford and Philippa Levine (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010), 4.
8. 8. Diane B. Paul, Controlling Human Heredity, 1865 to the Present (Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities Press, 1995).
9. 9. Francis Galton, Inquiries into Human Faculty and Its Development (London: Macmillan, 1883), 17.
10. 10. See, for example, Paul, Controlling Human Heredity.
11. 11. See Marius Turda, Modernism and Eugenics (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010), 7.
12. 12. See Karolina Kowalewski and Yasmin Mayne, “The Translation of Eugenic Ideology into Public Health Policy: The Case of Alberta and Saskatchewan,” in The Proceedings of the 18th Annual History of Medicine Days Conference 2009, ed. Lisa Peterman, Kerry Sun, and Frank W. Stahnisch (Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2012), 53–74.
13. 13. Ian Robert Dowbiggin, Keeping America Sane: Psychiatry and Eugenics in the United States and Canada, 1880-1940 (Ithaca: University of Cornell Press, 1997), 170–171.
14. 14. Erna Kurbegović, “The Influence of the Manitoba Mental Hygiene Survey, 1918,” Western Humanities Review 69, no. 3 (2016): 298.
15. 15. Kurbegović, “The Influence of the Manitoba Mental Hygiene Survey, 1918,” 298.
16. 16. Canadian National Committee for Mental Hygiene (CNCMH), “Manitoba Survey,” Winnipeg, October 1918.
17. 17. McLaren, Our Own Master Race, 99.
18. 18. Grekul, Krahn, and Odynak, “Sterilizing the ‘Feeble-Minded,’ ” 361–62.
19. 19. “Editorial,” Journals of the Legislative Assembly of Manitoba: Nineteenth Legislative Assembly (1933), 20, Manitoba Legislative Library Collection, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada.
20. 20. Byron M. Unkauf, “The Sterilization of the Mental Defective,” University of Manitoba Medical Journal 5/6, no. 1 (1933–35): 46.
21. 21. Alvin Mathers, “Report on the Prevention of Mental Disorders,” 1925, 8, Premier’s Office Files, G541, Health Programme, 1925–26, Government and Private Sector Archives, Archives of Manitoba, Winnipeg (hereafter, GPSA).
22. 22. David MacLennan, “Beyond the Asylum: Professionalization and the Mental Hygiene Movement in Canada, 1914–1928,” Canadian Bulletin of Medical History 4, no. 1 (1987): 19.
23. 23. MacLennan, “Beyond the Asylum,” 19; Elizabeth Lunbeck, The Psychiatric Persuasion: Knowledge, Gender, and Power in Modern America (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press 1995), 63.
24. 24. Kurbegović, “Manitoba Mental Hygiene Survey,” 302-3; “Mental Deficiency Measure Effective in Province since June 1,” Winnipeg Free Press, June 7, 1933.
25. 25. CNCMH, “Manitoba Survey,” 10.
26. 26. “Report on the Prevention of Mental Disorders,” 11, GPSA.
27. 27. Thomas G. B. Caunt, “Some Facts Concerning Mental Disease,” University of Manitoba Medical Journal 3/4, no. 2 (1931–33): 119.
28. 28. Caunt, “Some Facts,” 119.
29. 29. Unkauf, “Sterilization of the Mental Defective,” 27.
30. 30. Gerald Friesen, The Canadian Prairies: A History (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1987), 403.
31. 31. Winnipeg Tribune, March 11, 1933.
32. 32. “Sterilization of the Mental Defective,” 46.
33. 33. McLaren, Our Own Master Race, 97–98.
34. 34. “New Defectives Bill Passes Law Amendments Body,” Winnipeg Free Press, February 23, 1933.
35. 35. “Sterilization,” Northwest Review, March 4, 1933.
36. 36. McLaren, Our Own Master Race, 98.
37. 37. “Bill Sponsored by Hoey in Legislature Meeting Opposition,” Winnipeg Free Press, February 23, 1933.
38. 38. Alexandra Minna Stern, Eugenic Nation: Faults and Frontiers of Better Breeding in Modern America (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005), 83.
39. 39. Philip R. Reilly, “Eugenics and Involuntary Sterilization: 1907–2015,” Annual Review of Genomics and Human Genetics 16, no. 3 (2015): 356.
40. 40. Wendy Klein, Building a Better Race: Gender, Sexuality, and Eugenics from the Turn of the Century to the Baby Boom (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005), 31.
41. 41. McLaren, Our Own Master Race, 104.
42. 42. See also Erna Kurbegović, “Eugenics in Comparative Perspective: Explaining Manitoba and Alberta’s Divergence on Eugenics Policy” (PhD diss., University of Calgary, 2019).
43. 43. See Sebastien Normandin, “Eugenics, McGill, and the Catholic Church in Montréal and Québec: 1890–1942,” Canadian Bulletin of Medical History 15, no. 1 (1998): 59–86.
44. 44. Erika Dyck, “Sterilization and Birth Control in the Shadow of Eugenics: Married Middle-Class Women in Alberta, 1930-1960s,” Canadian Bulletin of Medical History 31, no. 4 (2014): 173–78.
45. 45. See, for example, Sharon M. Leon, An Image of God: The Catholic Struggle with Eugenics (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2013); Christine Rosen, Preaching Eugenics: Religious Leaders and the American Eugenics Movement (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004); John M. Bozeman, “Eugenics and the Clergy in the Early Twentieth Century United States,” Journal of American Culture 27, no. 4 (2004): 422–31; and Sharon M. Leon, ‘“Hopelessly Entangled in Nordic Pre-suppositions’: Catholic Participation in the American Eugenics Society in the 1920s,” Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences 59, no. 1 (2004): 3–49.
46. 46. Rosen, Preaching Eugenics, 139–45.
47. 47. Rosen, Preaching Eugenics, 140.
48. 48. Nancy Leys Stepan, “The Hour of Eugenics”: Race, Gender, and Nation in Latin America (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1991), 112.
49. 49. Leon, Image of God, 14.
50. 50. See also McLaren, Our Own Master Race, 154–57; Rosen, Preaching Eugenics, 142.
51. 51. Sean Springer, “Eugenics in Ontario: Reconsidering Catholicism, the Culture of Government, and Post War Eugenics in the Canadian Historiography” (MA thesis, Trent University, 2012), 66.
52. 52. Pius XI, Casti connubii, encyclical letter (December 31, 1930), sec. 68, 70, Vatican website, http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/pi-us_xi/encyclicals/documents/hf_p-xi_enc_31121930_casti-connubii_en.html.
53. 53. Leon, Image of God, 89.
54. 54. Winnipeg Tribune, March 8, 1933.
55. 55. “The British Medical Association and the Prevention of Mental Deficiency,” Mental Welfare 6 (1925): 11–13, esp. 13.
56. 56. Reverend W.L. Jubinville to Premier Bracken, February 24, 1933, Premier’s Office Files, G601, Sterilization Bill, GPSA.
57. 57. Garland E. Allen, “Eugenics and Modern Biology: Critiques of Eugenics, 1910–1945,” Annals of Human Genetics 75, no. 3 (2011): 322.
58. 58. Leon, Image of God, 76–77.
59. 59. F. Faure to Premier Bracken, February 27, 1933, Premier’s Office Files, G601, Sterilization Bill, GPSA.
60. 60. Winnipeg Tribune, March 21, 1933.
61. 61. J. H. Daignault to Premier Bracken, February 25, 1933, Premier’s Office Files, G601, Sterilization Bill, GPSA.
62. 62. Rev. Antoine d’Eschambault to Premier John Bracken, March 31, 1933, Premier’s Office Files, G601, Sterilization Bill, GPSA.
63. 63. “Manitoba Legislature Condemns Sterilization of Mental Defectives,” Catholic Register, March 20, 1933.
64. 64. John Kendle, John Bracken: A Political Biography (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1979), 41–42.
65. 65. “Bill Sponsored by Hoey.”
66. 66. “Bill Sponsored by Hoey.”
67. 67. “Fight against Sterilization Is to Be Resumed,” Winnipeg Free Press, April 21, 1933.
68. 68. “Fight against Sterilization.”
69. 69. “Sterilization Clause Passed by Committee,” Winnipeg Tribune, April 22, 1933.
70. 70. “Sterilization Clause Passed by Committee.”
71. 71. Allen, “Eugenics and Modern Biology,” 317–18.
72. 72. “Sterilization Clause Passed by Committee.”
73. 73. “Sterilization Clause Passed by Committee.”
74. 74. “Sterilization Clause Passed by Committee.”
75. 75. “Sterilization Clause Passed by Committe.”
76. 76. “Editorial,” Journals of the Legislative Assembly, 198–199; “Sterilization Proposals Are Killed by House,” Winnipeg Tribune, May 4, 1933.

CHAPTER 6

1. 1. “Folk Ways and Eugenics,” New York Times, August 14, 1908.
2. 2. Daniel E. Bender, American Abyss: Savagery and Civilization in the Age of Industry (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2009), 8–9.
3. 3. “Folk Ways and Eugenics,” 6.
4. 4. Galton, Essays in Eugenics (London: Eugenics Education Society, 1909), 35; Alexandra Minna Stern, Eugenic Nation: Faults and Frontiers of Better Breeding in Modern America (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005), 11.
5. 5. My research for this chapter was conducted primarily between 2011–2014 and thus reflects the eugenics scholarship available at the time.
6. 6. Wendy Kline, “Eugenics in the United States,” in The Oxford Handbook of the History of Eugenics, ed. Alison Bashford and Philippa Levin (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010), 511–22.
7. 7. Allen, “The Ideology of Elimination: American and German Eugenics, 1900–1945,” in Medicine and Medical Ethics in Nazi Germany: Origins, Practices, Legacies, ed. Francis R. Nicosia and Jonathan Huener (New York: Berghahn Books, 2002), 13–39; Edwin Black, War against the Weak: Eugenics and America’s Campaign to Create a Master Race (New York: Four Walls Eight Windows, 2003).
8. 8. Stern, Eugenic Nation, 6.
9. 9. Nathaniel Deutsch, Inventing America’s “Worst” Family; Eugenics, Islam and the Fall and Rise of The Tribe of Ishmael (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2009), 19–41.
10. 10. Edward J. Larson, Sex, Race, and Science: Eugenics in the Deep South (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995).
11. 11. Marouf Arif Hasian, The Rhetoric of Eugenics in Anglo-American Thought (Atlanta: University of Georgia Press, 1996), 23–4.
12. 12. Daniel T. Rodgers, Atlantic Crossings: Social Politics in a Progressive Age (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1998).
13. 13. Stefan Kuehl, The Nazi Connection: Eugenics, American Racism, and German National Socialism (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001).
14. 14. Stern, Eugenic Nation, 47.
15. 15. Black, War against the Weak, 30.
16. 16. Amory C. Stevens,“Perfect Men and Women,” Blue Grass Blade 15 (November 18, 1906): 1.
17. 17. Alexandra Minna Stern, “ ‘We Cannot Make a Silk Purse Out of a Sow’s Ear’: Eugenics in the Hoosier Heartland,” Indiana Magazine of History 103, no. 1 (2007): 20.
18. 18. “Perfect Men and Women,” 1.
19. 19. Peter Weingart, “Eugenics—Medical or Social Science?,” Science in Context 8, no. 2 (1995): 201.
20. 20. “Science to Make Men and Women Better,” Washington Post, May 18, 1906, 2. Sharon M. Leon and Christine Rosen and have done excellent work in examining some of the religious communities’ reactions to eugenics, in both support and opposition. Leon, An Image of God: The Catholic Struggle with Eugenics (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2013); Rosen, Preaching Eugenics: Religious Leaders and the American Eugenics Movement (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004).
21. 21. Allen, “Ideology of Elimination,” 17.
22. 22. “Folk Ways and Eugenics,” 6.
23. 23. “Improve Human Race,” Washington Post, October 28, 1906, 13.
24. 24. “Improved Quality of Humans Sought,” Los Angeles Times, October 31, 1906, 12.
25. 25. Blue Grass Blade, November 18, 1906, 1.
26. 26. Eugene Davenport, “To Weed Out Human Race,” Washington Post, January 30, 1909, 6.
27. 27. John Elfreth Watkins, “Quest of Superman,” Evening Star, November 10, 1906, 13.
28. 28. “Lovemaking,” Boston Daily Globe, September 2, 1906.
29. 29. “Whom Would You Choose as Father?” Washington Times, July 29, 1912, 14.
30. 30. John C. Hudson, “The School System of Chicago,” Chicago Daily Tribune, July 17, 1905, 14.
31. 31. Stern, Eugenic Nation, 14.
32. 32. Weingart, “Eugenics,” 199.
33. 33. Thomas C. Leonard, “American Economic Reform in the Progressive Era: Its Foundational Beliefs and Their Relation to Eugenics,” History of Political Economy 41, no. 1 (2009): 136.
34. 34. “Eugenics Head Takes Prof. Larkin to Task,” San Francisco Call, September 15, 1907.
35. 35. “Child Quality Not Quantity,” Toronto Daily Star, April 14, 1910, 3.
36. 36. Edward C. Spitzka, “Health First and Matrimony Afterward,” San Francisco Call, May 18, 1913, 1.
37. 37. Thanks to Jeri Wieringa for pointing me to an 1897 George du Maurier (1834–96) cartoon depicting a man, who had married a homely woman for her money, interacting with an old flame. Money clearly played a role in forging many marriages and did so in a variety of ways. The eugenics discourse’s focus on degenerate or ideal men, then, framed much of the language about the perceived dangers of suboptimal wealthy men using their privilege to attract women into marriage. George Du Maurier, English Society (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1897).
38. 38. Benjamin Witt quoted in Rodgers, Atlantic Crossings, 74.
39. 39. “Quest of a Standard,” New-York Daily Tribune, April 25, 1909, 3.
40. 40. “Selective Environment,” New York Times, October 2, 1905, 3.
41. 41. “Rosebery on Eugenics,” New York Times, July 5, 1908, C2.
42. 42. “Rosebery on Eugenics.”
43. 43. “A Perfect Race of Men,” New York Times, September 27, 1908, SM8.
44. 44. “Close Divorce Doors If Any Children,” New York Times, January 30, 1908, 2.
45. 45. “Lovemaking,” SM7.
46. 46. “First Eugenic Baby Born in England,” Day Book, October 29, 1913, 4.
47. 47. Peggy Pascoe analyzes in great detail the numerous ways that local officials willfully interpreted marriage laws and denied marriage licenses to interracial couples over the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Peggy Pascoe, What Comes Naturally: Miscegenation Law and the Making of Race in America (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009). See also Mark Brilliant, The Color of America Has Changed: How Racial Diversity Shaped Civil Rights Reform in California, 1941–1978 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010).
48. 48. Rodgers, Atlantic Crossings, 30.
49. 49. Rodgers, Atlantic Crossings, 59.
50. 50. Martin S. Pernick, “Eugenics and Public Health in American History,” American Journal of Public Health 87, no. 11 (1997): 1767–72.

CHAPTER 7

1. 1. Frank W. Stahnisch, “Von der Kriegsneurologie zur Psychotherapie—Kurt Goldstein (1878-1965) und die fruehen Ansaetze der Gruppenanalyse,” Gruppenpsychotherapie und Gruppendynamik 50, no. 1 (2014): 146–65.
2. 2. John Cornwell, Hitler’s Scientists: Science, War, and the Devil’s Pact (New York: Viking, 2003), 154.
3. 3. Cornwell, Hitler’s Scientists, 154.
4. 4. Radio interview with Kurt Goldstein (Series on Forced-Migration of German-Jewish Intellectuals to North America) by Irmgard Bach, Radio Bremen (June, 1959), Radio Bremen, Bremen, Germany; see also Bach, M[ichelle] I[rmgard]. “Interview with Kurt Goldstein (June, 1959) in NYC.” In Auszug des Geistes. Bericht ueber eine Sendereihe, edited by Lutz Besch, 93–114. Bremen, Germany: B. C. Hege, 1962.
5. 5. Andreas Strippel, NS-Volkstumspolitik und die Neuordnung Europas. Rassenpolitische Selektion der Einwandererzentralstelle des Chefs der Sicherheitspolizei und des SD (1939–1945) (Paderborn, Germany: Ferdinand Schoeningh Verlag, 2011), 102-6.
6. 6. Anne Harrington, “Kurt Goldstein’s Neurology of Healing and Wholeness: A Weimar Story,” in Greater Than the Parts: Holism in Biomedicine, 1920–1950, ed. George Weisz and Christopher Lawrence (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998), 24–45.
7. 7. Kurt Bayertz, Juergen Kroll, and Peter Weingart, Rasse, Blut und Gene. Geschichte der Eugenik und Rassenhygiene in Deutschland (Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp, 1988), 424–38.
8. 8. For example, see Yehuda Ben-Yishay and Leonard Diller, “Kurt Goldstein’s Holistic Ideas—An Alternative, or Complementary, Approach to the Management of Traumatically Brain-Injured Individuals,” US Neurology 4, no. 1 (2008): 79–80.
9. 9. See Douglas Gairdner, “Reading for Pleasure: History Opened My Eyes!,” British Medical Journal 284, no. 11 (1982): 1105–6.
10. 10. Stephen Pow and Frank W. Stahnisch, “Kurt Goldstein (1878–1965)—Pioneer in Neurology,” Journal of Neurology 261, no. 10 (2014): 1049–50.
11. 11. Johannes Hendrikus Burgers, “Max Nordau, Madison Grant, and Racialized Theories of Ideology,” Journal of the History of Ideas 72, no. 1 (2011): 119–40.
12. 12. Franz Josef Kallmann, The Genetics of Schizophrenia: A Study of Heredity and Reproduction in the Families of 1,087 Schizophrenics (New York: J. J. Augustin, 1938); John D. Rainer, “Franz Kallmann’s Views on Eugenics,” American Journal of Psychiatry 146, no. 12 (1989): 1361–62; correspondence from Ludwig Guttmann concerning rescinding of license to practice medicine, learning English, and translated transcripts of documents, 1938–1939, PP/GUT/A.1/3, box.1, 6, Wellcome Library of the History of Medicine, London, United Kingdom. See also the following seminal works: Michael Kater, “Hitler’s Early Doctors: Nazi Physicians in Pre-Depression Germany,” Journal of Modern History 95, no. 1 (1987): 25–52; Fritz Ringer, The Decline of the German Mandarins: The German Academic Community, 1890–1933 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1969), 14–80.
13. 13. The “Famous Five,” or “Alberta Five,” were early feminist activists Emily Murphy (1868–1933), Irene Marryat Parlby (1868–1965), Nellie Mooney McClung (1873–1951), Louise Crummy McKinney (1868–1931), and Henrietta Muir Edwards (1849–1931). Erika Dyck, “Sterilization and Birth Control in the Shadow of Eugenics: Married, Middle-Class Women in Alberta, 1930s–1960s,” Canadian Bulletin of Medical History 31, no. 1 (2014): 165–78; Tommy C. Douglas, The Making of a Socialist: The Recollections of T. C. Douglas, ed. Lewis Thomas (Edmonton: University of Alberta Press, 1984), 108.
14. 14. Tommy C. Douglas, “The Problems of the Subnormal Family” (MA thesis, McMaster University, 1933), 25.
15. 15. Although the neighbouring province of Saskatchewan—in which the revered Tommy Douglas became premier in 1944—saw continuous intellectual and partially public debate regarding a “program of eugenics,” this must be seen as a “social movement” or a “cultural climate.” Saskatchewan did not have any far-reaching eugenics program and was, in fact, surpassed by provinces such as British Columbia and Alberta, with their centralized provincial legislation, and even by medical system–based programs in Ontario and Nova Scotia. On the case of Saskatchewan, see, for example, Erika Dyck and Alex Deighton, Managing Madness: Weyburn Mental Hospital and the Transformation of Psychiatric Care in Canada (Winnipeg: University of Manitoba Press, 2017), 151–70; and Alex Deighton, “The Nature of Eugenic Thought and Limits of Eugenic Practice in Interwar Saskatchewan,” in Eugenics at the Edges of Empire: New Zealand, Australia, Canada and South Africa, ed. Diana B. Paul, John Stenhouse, and Hamish G. Spencer (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2018), 63–84.
16. 16. See Stefan Kuehl, The Nazi Connection: Eugenics, American Racism, and German National Socialism (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), 6.
17. 17. Matthias M. Weber, Ernst Ruedin: Eine kritische Biographie (Berlin: Springer, 1993), 174–211.
18. 18. Kurt Goldstein, Ueber Rassenhygiene (Berlin: Springer, 1913).
19. 19. See, for example, Erwin Stransky, “Aus einem Gelehrtenleben um die Zeitenwende: Rueckschau, Ausblick, Gedanken,” n. d., 318–19, collection of autographs, History of Medicine Library and Institute for the History of Medicine; Josephinum, Medical University of Vienna, Austria.
20. 20. Paul Weindling, John W. Thompson: Psychiatrist in the Shadow of the Holocaust (Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press, 2010), 3–10; Francis R. Nicosia and Jonathan Huener, eds., Medicine and Medical Ethics in Nazi Germany: Origins, Practices, Legacies (New York: Basic Books, 2002), 1–15.
21. 21. Radio interview with Kurt Goldstein (Series on Forced-Migration of German-Jewish Intellectuals to North America) by Irmgard Bach, Radio Bremen (June, 1959), Radio Bremen, Bremen, Germany; see also Bach, M[ichelle] I[rmgard]. “Interview with Kurt Goldstein (June, 1959) in NYC.” In Auszug des Geistes. Bericht ueber eine Sendereihe, edited by Lutz Besch, 93–114. Bremen, Germany: B. C. Hege, 1962.
22. 22. Angus McLaren, Our Own Master Race: Eugenics in Canada, 1885–1945 (Toronto: McClelland & Stewart, 1990), 166.
23. 23. Robert Ulrich, “Kurt Goldstein,” in The Reach of Mind: Essays in Memory of Kurt Goldstein, ed. Marianne L. Simmel (New York: Springer, 1968), 13–15.
24. 24. Edwin Black, War against the Weak: Eugenics and America’s Campaign to Create a Master Race (New York: Dialog, 2007), 261–62.
25. 25. Kurt Goldstein, Human Nature in the Light of Psychopathology (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1940), 222–23.
26. 26. Mitchell G. Ash, “Scientific Changes in Germany 1933, 1945, 1990: Towards a Comparison,” Minerva 37, no. 3 (1999): 329–54.
27. 27. See Ben-Yishay and Diller, Kurt Goldstein’s Holistic Ideas, 79–80.
28. 28. At Harvard, the protagonist of holist neurology spoke mainly in front of an audience interested in general questions of clinical psychology, patient education, and rehabilitation, with only a few participants attending from the medical community. See also the assessment of MIT psychologist Hans-Lukas Teuber (1916–77), who helped to make Goldstein’s Harvard visit possible, in Teuber, “Kurt Goldstein’s Role in the Development of Neuropsychology,” Neuropsychologia 4, no. 4 (1966): 299–310.
29. 29. Kurt Goldstein, “Die Neuroregulation. Referat,” Verhandlungen der Deutschen Gesellschaft fuer Innere Medizin 43, no. 1 (1931): 9–13; Kurt Goldstein, “Das psychophysische Problem in seiner Bedeutung fuer aerztliches Handeln,” Therapie der Gegenwart 72, no. 1 (1931): 1–11; typescripts and lecture notes by Kurt Goldstein, 1938–1939, MS#0498, Box 14 and 15, Bib ID 4078817, Series II Lectures notes, Kurt Goldstein papers, 1900–1965, Rare Book & Manuscript Library. Columbia University, New York.
30. 30. Gerhard Danzer, ed., Vom Konkreten zum Abstrakten. Leben und Werk Kurt Goldsteins (1878–1965) (Frankfurt am Main: Mabuse Verlag, 2006), 11–70.
31. 31. Uta Noppeney, “Kurt Goldstein—A Philosophical Scientist,” Journal of the History of the Neurosciences 10, no. 1 (2001): 67–78; Frank W. Stahnisch, “Ludwig Edinger (1855–1918)—Pioneer in Neurology,” Journal of Neurology 255, no. 1 (2008): 147–48; “Petition to the Medical Faculty in Frankfurt am Main,“ n. d. 1919, Edinger Commission, 5–8, Senckenberg Library Frankfurt, Johann Wolfgang Goethe University, Frankfurt am Main, Germany.
32. 32. Mitchell G. Ash, Gestalt Psychology in German Culture, 1890–1967: Holism and the Quest for Objectivity (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), 325–404.
33. 33. Goldstein quoted in Anne Harrington, Reenchanted Science: Holism in German Culture from Wilhelm II to Hitler (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996), 140–41. On Breslau at the time, see Till van Rahden, Jews and Other Germans: Civil Society, Religious Diversity, and Urban Politics in Breslau, 1860–1925 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 2008), 21–63.
34. 34. Pow and Stahnisch, “Kurt Goldstein,” 1049.
35. 35. Ludwig Edinger, The Anatomy of the Central Nervous System of Man and of Vertebrates in General, trans. Winfield S. Hall, Philo Leon Holland, and Edward P. Carlton (Philadelphia: F. A. Davis, 1899); “Petition to the Medical Faculty in Frankfurt am Main,“ n. d. 1919, Edinger Commission, 1–2, Senckenberg Library Frankfurt, Johann Wolfgang Goethe University, Frankfurt am Main, Germany.
36. 36. Frank W. Stahnisch and Thomas Hoffmann, “Kurt Goldstein and the Neurology of Movement during the Interwar Years—Physiological Experimentation, Clinical Psychology and Early Rehabilitation,” in Was bewegt uns? Menschen im Spannungsfeld zwischen Mobilitaet und Beschleunigung, ed. Christian Hoffstadt, Franz Peschke, and Andreas Schulz–Buchta (Bochum, Germany: Projektverlag, 2010), 283–311.
37. 37. Klaus J. Neumaerker and Andreas Joachim Bartsch, “Karl Kleist (1879–1960)—A Pioneer of Neuropsychiatry,” History of Psychiatry 14, no. 4 (2003): 411–58; Kurt Goldstein, “Notes on the Development of My Concepts,” in Kurt Goldstein: Selected Papers/Ausgewaehlte Schriften, edited by Aron Gurwitsch, Else M. Goldstein-Haudek, and William E. Haudek (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1971), 1–12; Richard Jung, “Ueber eine Nachuntersuchung des Falles Schn. von Goldstein und Gelb,” Psychiatrie, Neurologie und medizinische Psychologie 1, no. 3 (1949): 353–62.
38. 38. Goldstein, “Development of My Concepts,” 5.
39. 39. Goldstein, “Development of My Concepts,” 5.
40. 40. Michael Kuetemeyer and Ulrich Schultz, “Kurt Goldstein (1878–1965): Begruender einer psychosomatischen Neurologie?,” in Nicht misshandeln. Das Krankenhaus Moabit, 1920–1933. Ein Zentrum juedischer Aerzte in Berlin, 1933–1945. Verfolgung, Widerstand, Zerstoerung, ed. Christian Pross and Rolf Winau (Berlin: Edition Hentrich, 1984), 133–39.
41. 41. See, for example, Udo Benzenhoefer and Gerald Kreft, “Bemerkungen zur Frankfurter Zeit (1917–1933) des juedischen Neurologen und Psychiaters Walther Riese,” Schriftenreihe der Deutschen Gesellschaft fuer Geschichte der Nervenheilkunde 3, no. 1 (1997): 31–40; or Thomas Plaenkers, eds., Psychoanalyse in Frankfurt am Main. Zerstoerte Anfaenge. Wiederannaehrung. Entwicklungen (Tuebingen, Germany: Niemeyer, 1996).
42. 42. Michael I. Shevell, “Neurosciences in the Third Reich: From Ivory Tower to Death Camps,” Canadian Journal of Neurological Sciences 26, no. 2 (1999): 132–38; Eric D. Weitz, Weimar Germany: Promise and Tragedy (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2007).
43. 43. Goldstein, Kurt. Der Aufbau des Organismus: Einfuehrung in die Biologie unter besonderer Beruecksichtigung der Erfahrungen am kranken Menschen, edited by Thomas Hoffman and Frank W. Stahnisch, 2nd ed. (Munich: Wilhelm Fink, 2014).
44. 44. Walter Riese, “Kurt Goldstein: The Man and His Work,” The Reach of Mind: Essays in Memory of Kurt Goldstein, ed. Marianne L. Simmel (New York: Springer, 1968), 17–29.
45. 45. Frank W. Stahnisch, “German-Speaking Émigré-Neuroscientists in North America after 1933: Critical Reflections on Emigration-Induced Scientific Change,” Oesterreichische Zeitschrift fuer Geschichtswissenschaften (Vienna) 21, no. 1 (2010): 36–68.
46. 46. Marianne L. Simmel, “Kurt Goldstein 1878–1965,” in The Reach of Mind: Essays in Memory of Kurt Goldstein, ed. Marianne L. Simmel (New York: Springer, 1968), 2–11.ron
47. 47. Ulrich, “Kurt Goldstein,” 15.
48. 48. See Sulamit Volkov, “Jewish Scientists in Imperial Germany (Parts I and II),” Aleph: Historical Studies in Science and Judaism 1, no. 1 (2001): 1–36; Frederic Henry Lewy, “Historical Introduction: The Basal Ganglia and Their Diseases,” The Diseases of the Basal Ganglia, edited by Research Publication of the Association for Research in Nervous and Mental Disease. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1942, 1–20.
49. 49. Wolfram Belz, “Kurt Goldstein (1878–1965)—Lebens- und zeitgeschichtliche Hintergruende,” in Danzer, Vom Konkreten zum Abstrakten, 11–70.
50. 50. Goldstein, Ueber Rassenhygiene, 1–3.
51. 51. Goldstein, Ueber Rassenhygiene, 28–29; trans. Frank W. Stahnisch. Alfred Ploetz (1860–1940) was the racial hygienist who had the most profound influence on Adolf Hitler’s writing of Mein Kampf (1925), his foundational book of National Socialism.
52. 52. Ringer, Decline of the German Mandarins, 174–175.
53. 53. Ringer, Decline of the German Mandarins, 136.
54. 54. Michael Kater, The Nazi Party: A Social Profile of Members and Leaders 1919–1945 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), 239.
55. 55. Goldstein, Ueber Rassenhygiene, 94; trans. Frank W. Stahnisch.
56. 56. Richard Weikart, “Darwinism and Death: Devaluing Human Life in Germany 1859–1920,” Journal of the History of Ideas 63, no. 3 (2002): 323–44; Frank W. Stahnisch, “Psychiatrie und Hirnforschung: Zu den interstitiellen Uebergaengen des staedtischen Wissenschaftsraums im Labor der Berliner Metropole—Oskar und Cécile Vogt, Korbinian Brodmann, Kurt Goldstein,” in Psychiater und Zeitgeist. Zur Geschichte der Psychiatrie in Berlin, ed. Hanfried Helmchen (Berlin: Pabst Science Publisher, 2008), 76–93.
57. 57. Sigmund Freud, Vorlesungen zur Einfuehrung in die Psychoanalyse und Neue Folge (1916/17) [Vol. 1 of the series: Collected works of Sigmund Freud (Studienausgabe), edited by Mitscherlich, Alexander, Angela Richards, and James Stratchey] (Frankfurt am Main: S. Fischer, 1989), 282–95; Eric J. Engstrom, Clinical Psychiatry in Imperial Germany: A History of Psychiatric Practice (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2003), 194–98; Frank W. Stahnisch, “Griesinger, Wilhelm (1817–1869),” in Dictionary of Medical Biography, ed. William F. Bynum and Helen Bynum, vol. 2 (London: Greenwood, 2007), 582–83; Wilhelm Griesinger, Mental Pathology and Therapeutics (London: New Sydenham Society, 1867).
58. 58. Karl Heinz Hafner and Rolf Winau, “ ‘Die Freigabe der Vernichtung lebensunwerten Lebens’: Eine Untersuchung zu der Schrift von Karl Binding und Alfred Hoche,” Medizinhistorisches Journal 9, no. 2 (1974): 227–54.
59. 59. Anton Leist, Auguste Forel. Eugenik und Erinnerungskultur (Zurich: Hochschulverlag, 2006), 31.
60. 60. Hoche, Die Grenzen der geistigen Gesundheit (Halle, Germany: Marhold, 1903); Hoche and Finger, Zur Frage der Zeugnisfaehigkeit geistig abnormer Personen (Halle, Germany: Marhold, 1904); Hoche, “Konstitutionelle Psychopathien,” in Lehrbuch der Psychiatrie, ed. Ernst Schultze, Alfred Hoche, Alexander Westphal, Rolf Wallenberg, Otto Binswanger, and Ernst Siemerling (Jena, Germany: Gustav Fischer, 1926), 290–321.
61. 61. Goldstein, Ueber Rassenhygiene, 36, 69, 38.
62. 62. Goldstein, Ueber Rassenhygiene, 70.
63. 63. The scientific output published from each of these institutes was, in most cases, (co-)authored under the name of, or at least together with, the directing Professor ordinarius, so as to thank the chief of the institution for the laboratory and office space and for the academic positions themselves, which provided the basis for contemporary researchers to produce their scientific work. For example, see Frank W. Stahnisch, “ ‘Der Rosenthal’sche Versuch’ oder: Ueber den Ort produktiver Forschung—Zur Exkursion des physiologischen Experimentallabors von Isidor Rosenthal (1836–1915) von der Stadt aufs Land,” Sudhoffs Archiv. Zeitschrift fuer Wissenschaftsgeschichte 94, no. 1 (2010): 1–30.
64. 64. Peter Woerster, “Archive im Koenigsberger Gebiet nach 1945,” Zeitschrift fuer Ostmitteleuropaforschung 39, no. 1 (1990): 85–92.
65. 65. Karl Binding and Alfred Hoche, Die Freigabe der Vernichtung lebensunwerten Lebens. Ihr Mass und ihre Form (Leipzig: Verlag von Felix Meiner, 1920).
66. 66. Ruth Kloocke, Heinz-Peter Schmiedebach, and Stefan Priebe, “Psychological Injury in the Two World Wars: Changing Concepts and Terms in German Psychiatry,” History of Psychiatry 16, no. 1 (2005): 43–60.
67. 67. Emil Kraepelin, “Zur Entartungsfrage,” Zentralblatt fuer Neurologie und Psychiatrie, n. s., 31, no. 7 (1908): 745–51; Peter Emil Becker, Zur Geschichte der Rassenhygiene. Wege ins Dritte Reich (Stuttgart: Thieme, 1988), 61.
68. 68. Becker, Zur Geschichte der Rassenhygiene, 32–41.
69. 69. Kraepelin, “Zur Entartungsfrage,” 745–48.
70. 70. Goldstein, Ueber Rassenhygiene, 32–65.
71. 71. Volker Roelcke, “Von Emil Kraepelin zu Ernst Ruedin: Die Deutsche Forschungsanstalt fuer Psychiatrie 1917–1945,” Schriftenreihe der Deutschen Gesellschaft fuer Psychiatrie 2, no. 4 (1997): 419–35.
72. 72. Volker Roelcke, “Psychiatric Research and Science Policy in Germany: The History of the Deutsche Forschungsanstalt fuer Psychiatrie,” History of Psychiatry 11, no. 2 (2000): 235–58.
73. 73. Ernst Ruedin, “Ueber den Zusammenhang zwischen Geisteskrankheit und Kultur,” Archiv fuer Rassen- und Gesellschaftsbiologie 7, no. 1 (1910): 741; trans. Frank W. Stahnisch.
74. 74. Detlev Peukert, The Weimar Republic: The Crisis of Classical Modernity, trans. Richard Deveson (New York: Hill and Wang, 1989).
75. 75. See also Max Gruber and Emil Kraepelin, Wandtafeln zur Alkoholfrage. Erlaeuterungen nebst den 10 verkleinerten Tafeln in mehrfachem Farbendruck (Munich: Lehmann, 1911).
76. 76. Binding and Hoche, Die Freigabe, 39; trans. Frank W. Stahnisch.
77. 77. E. Fuller Torrey and Robert H. Yolken, “Psychiatric Genocide: Nazi Attempts to Eradicate Schizophrenia,” Schizophrenia Bulletin 36, no. 1 (2010): 26–32.
78. 78. Binding and Hoche, Die Freigabe, 1–6.
79. 79. Goetz Aly, ed., Aktion T4 1939–1945. Die “Euthanasie–Zentrale” in der Tiergartenstrasse (Berlin: Edition Hentrich, 1987); Hans-Walther Schmuhl, Hirnforschung und Krankenmord. Das Kaiser-Wilhelm-Institut fuer Hirnforschung 1937–1945 (Berlin: Max-Planck-Gesellschaft, 2000); memo, by general secretary Ernst Telschow (1889–1988), September 11, 1931, based on letters by Oscar Vogt to Gustav Krupp von Bohlen und Halbach (1870–1950), September 9, 1931; Oscar Vogt to John Campbell Merriam (1869–1945), February 10, 1932; Merriam to Vogt on May 26, 1932; and Vogt to Krupp von Bohlen und Halbach, September 19, 1932, II. Sect., Rep. 1 A, 39, Collection on the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Brain Research, Berlin-Buch and Max Planck Institute for Brain Research, Frankfurt am Main, Archive on the History of the Max Planck Society, Berlin (MPG Archive), Germany.
80. 80. Paul Weindling, “From International to Zonal Trials: The Origins of the Nuremberg Medical Trial,” Holocaust Genocide Studies 14, no. 3 (2000): 367–89.
81. 81. Goldstein, Ueber Rassenhygiene, 32–34.
82. 82. Hans-Walther Schmuhl and Volker Roelcke, eds., “Heroische Therapien”: Die deutsche Psychiatrie im internationalen Vergleich, 1918–1945 (Goettingen: Wallstein Verlag, 2013).
83. 83. Goldstein, Ueber Rassenhygiene, 34; trans. Frank W. Stahnisch.
84. 84. Jack Pressman, Last Resort: Psychosurgery and the Limits of Medicine (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), 48–84.
85. 85. Goldstein, Ueber Rassenhygiene, 62. See Alexandra Minna Stern, “Improving Hoosiers: Indiana and the Wide Scope of American Eugenics,” Indiana Magazine of History 106, no. 2 (2010): 219–23.
86. 86. A few noteworthy examples are Ash, Gestalt Psychology, 477; and Uwe Gerrens, Medizinisches Ethos und theologische Kritik. Karl und Dietrich Bonhoeffer in der Auseinandersetzung um Zwangssterilisation und “Euthanasie” im Nationalsozialismus (Munich: Oldenbourg, 1996), 47; however, they have not treated Goldstein’s embracing of eugenics theory in the wider social and scientific context of the time.
87. 87. Heinz-Peter Schmiedebach, “The Public’s View of Neurasthenia in Germany—Looking for a New Rhythm of Life,” in Cultures of Neurasthenia: From Beard to the First World War, ed. Marijke Gijswijt-Hofstra, and Roy Porter (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 2001), 219–38.
88. 88. Goldstein, Ueber Rassenhygiene, 34–5.
89. 89. See Ulrich Sieg, Geist und Gewalt. Deutsche Philosophen zwischen Kaiserreich und Nationalsozialismus (Munich: Carl Hanser, 2013), 103–32.
90. 90. Frederick B. Churchill, “Regeneration, 1885–1901,” in A History of Regeneration Research: Milestones in the Evolution of a Science, ed. Charles E. Dinsmore (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), 113–32.
91. 91. Richard Weikart, “The Origins of Social Darwinism in Germany, 1859–1895,” Journal of the History of Ideas 54, no. 3 (1993): 469–88.
92. 92. Edward Shorter, A History of Psychiatry: From the Era of the Asylum to the Age of Prozac (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1997), 33–68.
93. 93. Jason Crouthamel, “Invisible Traumas: Psychological Wounds, World War I and German Society, 1914–1945” (PhD diss., Indiana University, 2001).
94. 94. Kurt Goldstein, Die Behandlung, Fuersorge und Begutachtung der Hirnverletzten: Zugleich ein Beitrag zur Verwendung psychologischer Methoden in der Klinik (Leipzig: F. C. W. Vogel, 1919); Goldstein, “Das psychophysische Problem.”
95. 95. Radio interview with Kurt Goldstein (Series on Forced-Migration of German-Jewish Intellectuals to North America) by Irmgard Bach, Radio Bremen (June, 1959), Radio Bremen, Bremen, Germany; see also Bach, M[ichelle] I[rmgard]. “Interview with Kurt Goldstein (June, 1959) in NYC.” In Auszug des Geistes. Bericht ueber eine Sendereihe, edited by Lutz Besch, 93–114. Bremen, Germany: B. C. Hege, 1962.
96. 96. Ulrich, “Kurt Goldstein,” 15.
97. 97. Gerald Goldstein, “Contributions of Kurt Goldstein to Neuropsychology,” Clinical Neuropsychology 4, no. 1 (1990): 3–17; see also Kurt Goldstein, Language and Language Disturbances: Aphasic Symptom Complexes and Their Significance for Medicine and Theory of Language (New York: Grune & Stratton, 1948).
98. 98. Teuber, “Kurt Goldstein’s Role.”
99. 99. See Robert N. Proctor, Racial Hygiene: Medicine under the Nazis (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1988), 65–94.
100. 100. Radio interview with Kurt Goldstein (Series on Forced-Migration of German-Jewish Intellectuals to North America) by Irmgard Bach, Radio Bremen (June, 1959), Radio Bremen, Bremen, Germany; see also Bach, M[ichelle] I[rmgard]. “Interview with Kurt Goldstein (June, 1959) in NYC.” In Auszug des Geistes. Bericht ueber eine Sendereihe, edited by Lutz Besch, 93–114. Bremen, Germany: B. C. Hege, 1962; Michael I. Shevell, “A Canadian Paradox: Tommy Douglas and Eugenics,” Canadian Journal of Neurological Sciences 39, no. 1 (2012): 35–39.
101. 101. Joseph Jay and Norbert A. Wetzel, “Ernst Ruedin: Hitler’s Racial Hygiene Mastermind,” Journal of the History of Biology 46, no. 1 (2013): 1–30.
102. 102. Ernst Ruedin, “Die Bedeutung der Eugenik und Genetik fuer die Psychische Hygiene,” Zeitschrift fuer psychische Hygiene 3, no. 1 (1930): 133–47.
103. 103. Sheila Gibbons, “ ‘Our Power to Remodel Civilization’: The Development of Eugenic Feminism in Alberta, 1909–1921,” Canadian Bulletin of Medical History 31, no. 1 (2014): 123–42.
104. 104. Deborah Barrett and Charles Kurzman, “Globalizing Social Movement Theory: The Case of Eugenics,” Theory and Society 33, no. 5 (2004): 487–527; Ian Dowbiggin, The Sterilization Movement and Global Fertility in the Twentieth Century (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008), 32–35.
105. 105. Solomon Diamond, “Buckle, Wundt, and Psychology’s Use of History,” Isis 75, no. 1 (1984): 143–52; Wilhelm Wundt, Grundzuege der physiologischen Psychologie, 3 vols. (Leipzig: W. Engelmann, 1859–62).
106. 106. See David Zimmerman, “ ‘Narrow Minded People’: Canadian Universities and the Academic Refugee Crises, 1933–1941,” Canadian Historical Review 88, no. 3 (2007): 298; collection on the Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, 1933, UAA-2012-044, University of Alberta Archives, Research & Collections Resource Facility, Edmonton.
107. 107. Schmuhl, Hirnforschung und Krankenmord, 20–48.
108. 108. Even the term “race” (Rasse) is only mentioned on five pages (pp. 375, 376, 377, 378, and 379) in his 1934 magnum opus, “The Organism.” Here, Goldstein particularly calls for a “better proof” and definition of the reality (Seinsweise) of racial concepts, such as those of minor intelligence (geringere Intelligenz), in order to avoid any “inhumane deeds” (alles Unmenschliche), which could be associated with the medical and political pressures exerted on neurological and psychiatric patients. At this time, however, Goldstein was all too aware of his expulsion from his own position and torture by the Gestapo during the previous year, before he sat down again to write his famous book and avoid any connection to his earlier eugenics theorizing from 1913. Hoffmann and Stahnisch, Kurt Goldstein, Der Aufbau des Organismus, 376–79.

CHAPTER 8

1. 1. Elof Axel Carlson, “The Indiana Origins of Sterilization,” in A Century of Eugenics in America, ed. Paul Lombardo (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2010), 18–20.
2. 2. Andrew Scull, Madness in Civilization: A Cultural History of Insanity (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2015), 290-321.
3. 3. Paul Weindling, Health, Race and German Politics between National Unification and Nazism, 1870–1945 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989); Matthias M. Weber, “Ernst Ruedin, 1874–1952: A German Psychiatrist and Geneticist,” American Journal of Medical Genetics 67, no. 4 (1996): 323–31.
4. 4. Weindling, Health, Race and German Politics.
5. 5. Alfred Ploetz, Grundlinien einer Rassenhygiene, vol. 1 (Berlin: Prognos, 1895).
6. 6. Ernst Ruedin, Zur Vererbung und Neuentstehung der Dementia Praecox. (Berlin: Springer Verlag, 1916).
7. 7. Paul Weindling, Victims and Survivors of Nazi Human Experiments: Science and Suffering in the Holocaust (London: Bloomsbury, 2014).
8. 8. Stefan Kuehl, The Nazi Connection: Eugenics, American Racism, and German National Socialism (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997), 23–4.
9. 9. Paul Ehrenstroem, “Eugenics and Public Health: Legal Sterilization of Mentally Ill in the Vaud Canton (Switzerland),” History and Philosophy of the Life Sciences 15, no. 2 (1993): 205–27.
10. 10. Marek V. Simunek, “Making Infertile (Unfruchtbarmachung)/Sterilisations in the Reich District of Sudetenland During the Nazi Occupation, 1938–45: Overview,” Specialni pedagogika 24, no. 1 (2014): 24–40.
11. 11. Bjorn M. Felder and Paul Weindling, eds., Baltic Eugenics: Bio-Politics, Race and Nation in Interwar Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania 1918–1940 (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 2013).
12. 12. Claudia Spring, Zwischen Krieg und Euthanasie. Zwangssterilisation in Wien (Vienna: Boehlau, 2009); Herwig Czech, Erfassung, Selektion und “Ausmerze”: Das Wiener Gesundheitsamt und die Umsetzung der nationalsozialistischen “Erbgesundheitspolitik” 1938 bis 1945 (Vienna: Deuticke, 2003).
13. 13. Astrid Ley, Zwangssterilisation und Aerzteschaft. Hintergruende und Ziele aerztlichen Handelns 1934–1945 (Frankfurt am Main: Campus, 2004); Angelika Ebbinghaus and Heidrun Kaupen-Haas, Heilen und Vernichten im Mustergau Hamburg. Bevoelkerungs- und Gesundheitspolitik im Dritten Reich (Marburg, Germany: Konkret Verlag, 1984).
14. 14. Maike Rotzoll, Gerrit Hohendorf, Petra Fuchs, Paul Richter, Christoph Mundt, and Wolfgang Eckart, eds., Die nationalsozialistische “Euthanasie” – Aktion “T 4” und ihre Opfer: Geschichte und ethische Konsequenzen fuer die Gegenwart, (Paderborn: Ferdinand Schoeningh, 2010).
15. 15. Christoph Mundt, Gerrit Hohendorf, and Maike Rotzoll, eds., Psychiatrische Forschung und NS-Euthanasie, Beitraege zu einer Gedenkveranstaltung an der Psychiatrischen Universitaetsklinik Heidelberg (Heidelberg: University of Heidelberg, 2001), 329–30.
16. 16. Gabriele Czarnowski has reconstructed incidents of research on forced labourers and their fetuses in minute detail. Czarnowski, “Nationalsozialistische Frauenpolitik und Medizin: zum Zusammenhang von Zwangssterilisation und Sterilitaetsforschung am Beispiel des Koenigsberger Universitaetsgynaekologen Felix von Mikulicz-Radecki,” in Frauen und Faschismus in Europa. Der faschistische Koerper, ed. Leonore Siegele-Wenschkewitz and Gerda Stuchlik (Pfaffenweiler, Germany: Centaurus, 1990), 90–113; Czarnowski, ‘“Die restlose Beherrschung dieser Materie.’ Beziehungen zwischen Zwangssterilisation und gynaekologischer Sterilitaetsforschung im Nationalsozialismus,“ Zeitschrift fuer Sexualforschung 14, no. 2 (2001): 226–46.
17. 17. Paul Weindling, Nazi Medicine and the Nuremberg Trials: From Medical War Crimes to Informed Consent (Basingstoke: Palgrave-Macmillan, 2004), 229-245.
18. 18. Stephan Kolb, Paul Weindling, Volker Roelcke, and Horst Seithe, “Apologising for Nazi Medicine: A Constructive Starting Point,” Lancet 380, no. 7 (2012): 722–23.
19. 19. United Nations Office at Geneva, Switzerland (UNOG), SOA 407/02 Plight of Survivors of Concentration Camps Weis Note, February 15, 1951.
20. 20. UNOG, SOA 417/3/01 for individual cases.
21. 21. Weindling, Nazi Medicine.
22. 22. Aleksandra Loewenau, “The Failure of the West German Judicial System in Serving Justice: The Case of Dr. Horst Schumann,” Wiener Klinische Wochenschrift 18, no. 3 (2018):169–172.
23. 23. Heiner Fangerau and Irmgard Mueller, “Das Standardwerk der Rassenhygiene von Erwin Baur, Eugen Fischer und Fritz Lenz im Urteil der Psychiatrie und Neurologie 1921–1940,” Der Nervenarzt 73, no. 10 (2002): 1039–46; Hans-Peter Kroener, Von der Rassenhygiene zur Humangenetik (Stuttgart: Gustav Fischer, 1998).
24. 24. Otmar von Verschuer, “Alfred Ploetz,” Der Erbarzt 8, no. 6 (1940): 69–72.
25. 25. Sheila Faith Weiss, Mark B. Adams, and Garland E. Allen, “Human Heredity and Politics: A Comparative Institutional Study of the Eugenics Record Office at Cold Spring Harbor (United States), the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Anthropology, Human Heredity and Eugenics (Germany) and the Maxim Gorky Medical Genetics Institute (USSR),” Osiris 20, no. 1 (2005): 232–62.
26. 26. Weindling, Health, Race and German Politics.
27. 27. Paul Weindling, Nazi Medicine and the Nuremberg Trials. From Medical War Crimes to Informed Consent (Basingstoke: Palgrave-Macmillan, 2004), 41.
28. 28. Persons and Places File (Dossier File), Judge Advocate General, 1944–49, RG153, box 90, no. 125709-17, National Archives and Record Administration, Washington, DC, United States (hereafter, NARA).
29. 29. Persons and Places File (Dossier File), Judge Advocate General, 1944–49, RG153, box 90, no. 125709-17, NARA.
30. 30. Leo Alexander, Public Mental Health Practices in Germany: Sterilization and Execution of Patients Suffering from Nervous or Mental Disease. Combined Intelligence Operations Services, Item No. 24, File No. XXVIII-60, Aug. 1945, 1–173.
31. 31. Committee of the American Neurological Association for the Investigation of Eugenical Sterilization (Abraham Myerson, James B. Ayer, Tracy J. Putnam, Clyde E. Keeler, and Leo Alexander), Eugenical Sterilization: A Reorientation of the Problem (New York: Macmillan, 1936).
32. 32. USAR/JAG War Crimes Records Regarding Medical Experiments No. 125571-4 Straight to McHaney and Hardy, November 5, 1946, RG338, NARA.
33. 33. USAR/JAG War Crimes Records Regarding Medical Experiments No. 127376-9, RG338, NARA.
34. 34. Description of the wounds of the witness Chaim Balitzki, notes and reports of Leo Alexander, November 22, 1946, 63, 00641, ZSg 154/73, Bundesarchiv Koblenz, Germany.
35. 35. Landesarchiv Mecklenburg Vorpommern, Schwerin, ZAST K 153 70/47 Bd. 1, 3 re sterilisation trial in Schwerin, Germany.
36. 36. Stefanie Michaela Baumann, Menschenversuche und Wiedergutmachung (Munich: Oldenbourg, 2009).
37. 37. Egon Schwelb, Human Rights and the International Community (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1964).
38. 38. UNOG SOA 417/3/01 A Compensation for Injuries June 1, 1950, letter by Shamsee to Weis re Iwanska. Letter by George Brand (in the United Kingdom) to E. Garcia-Sayan 10 August 1950, Possible Programme of Aid to Victims of Medical Atrocities cc to Mary Tennison-Woods, head of section on women, NY.
39. 39. UNOG Case G/SO 262/2.
40. 40. Paul Weindling, “Entschaedigung der Sterilisierungs- und Euthanasie-Opfer nach 1945,” in Toedliche Medizin im Nationalsozialismus. Von der Rassenhygiene zum Massenmord, ed. Klaus-Dietmar Henke (Cologne: Boehlau, 2008), 31–46.
41. 41. Antje von Windmann, “Ein Stigma, lebenslang,” Der Spiegel, September 1, 2014.
42. 42. Von Windmann, “Ein Stigma.”
43. 43. Paul Weindling, “Sonstige Personenschaeden—die Entschaedigungspraxis der Stiftung ‘Erinnerung, Verantwortung und Zukunft,’ ” in Die Entschaedigung von NS-Zwangsarbeit am Anfang des 21. Jahrhunderts, ed. Constantin Goschler, vol. 2 (Goettingen: Wallstein Verlag, 2012), 197–225.
44. 44. “Capping the Cost of Atrocity: Survivor of Nazi Experiments Says $8,000 Isn’t Enough,” New York Times, November 13, 2003.
45. 45. Paul Weindling, “International Eugenics: Swedish Sterilization in Context,” Scandinavian Journal of History 24, no. 1 (1999): 179–97.
46. 46. Markku Mattila, Kansamme parhaaksi: Rotuhygienia Suomessa vuoden 1935 sterilointilakiin asti (Helsinki: Biblioteca Historica, 1999); Gunnar Broberg and Nils Roll-Hansen, eds., Eugenics and the Welfare State: Norway, Sweden, Denmark, and Finland (East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 2004).
47. 47. Imogen Foulkes, “The Trauma of Switzerland’s Morality Detentions,” BBC News, September 14, 2010, http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/mobile/world-europe-11295538; Thomas Huonker, Anstaltseinweisungen, Kindswegnahmen, Eheverbote, Sterilisationen, Kastrationen. Fuersorge, Zwangsmassnahmen, “Eugenik” und Psychiatrie in Zuerich zwischen 1890 und 1970 (Zurich: Orell Fuessli Verlag, 2003); Hans Jakob Ritter, Psychiatrie und Eugenik. Zur Auspraegung eugenischer Denk- und Handlungsmuster in der schweizerischen Psychiatrie 1850–1950 (Zurich: Chronos Verlag, 2009); Gisela Hauss and Beatrice Ziegler, “Sterilisationen bei Armen und Unmuendigen. Eine Untersuchung der Vormundschaftspraxis in den Staedten St. Gallen und Bern,” in Wie nationalsozialsozialistisch ist die Eugenik? What is National Socialist about Eugenics?, ed. Regina Wecker, Sabine Braunschweig, Gabriela Imboden, Bernhard Kuechenhoff, and Hans Jakob Ritter (Vienna, Cologne, and Weimar, Germany: Internationale Debatten zur Geschichte der Eugenik im 20. Jahrhundert / International Debates on the History of Eugenics in the 20th Century, 2009), 75–91; Véronique Mottier and Laura von Mandach, eds., Pflege, Stigmatisierung und Eugenik: Integration und Ausschluss in Medizin, Psychiatrie und Sozialhilfe (Zurich: Seismo, 2007); Geneviève Heller, Gilles Jeanmonod, and Jacques Gasser, eds., Rejetées, rebelles, mal adaptées: Débats sur l’eugénisme—Pratiques de la stérilisation non volontaire en Suisse romande au XXe siècle (Geneva: Georg Editeur, 2012).
48. 48. Leo Alexander, “Medical Science under Dictatorship,” Lancet 241, no. 2 (1949): 39–47, esp. 46.
49. 49. Alexander, “Medical Science under Dictatorship,” 47.

CHAPTER 9

1. 1. ARCH Disability Law Centre, “A Brief History of Disability Rights in Canada” (unpublished PowerPoint presentation, ARCH Disability Law Centre, Toronto, October 21, 2013), http://www.archdisabilitylaw.ca/sites/all/files/history%20of%20disability%20rights%20-%20pp_0.ppt.
2. 2. Arim Rubab, A Profile of Persons with Disabilities among Canadians aged 15 Years or Older (Ottawa: Statistics Canada, 2012), http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/89-654-x/89-654-x2015001-eng.pdf.
3. 3. ARCH Disability Law Centre, “Brief History.”
4. 4. Mary Tremblay, “Lieutenant John Counsell and the Development of Medical Rehabilitation and Disability Policy in Canada,” in Disabled Veterans in History, ed. David A. Gerber (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2012), 322–46.
5. 5. David Lepofsky, “The Long, Arduous Road to a Barrier-Free Ontario for People with Disabilities: The History of the Ontarians with Disabilities Act—The First Chapter,” National Journal of Constitutional Law 15 (2004): 125–33.
6. 6. Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, s. 8, Part 1 of the Constitution Act, 1982, being Schedule B to the Canada Act 1982 (UK), 1982, c. 11.
7. 7. Vriend v. Alberta (1998), 1 S.C.R. 493.
8. 8. The Harvard Law Review Association, “Developments in the Law: The Law of Marriage and Family,” Harvard Law Review 7 (2003): 1996–2122.
9. 9. Lepofsky, “Long, Arduous Road,” 128.
10. 10. Eldridge v. British Columbia (Attorney General) (1997), 3 S.C.R. 624.
11. 11. Eldridge, 3 S.C.R .
12. 12. Pearl Eliadis, Speaking Out on Human Rights: Debating Canada’s Human Rights System (Montréal and Kingston: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2014), 63–108.
13. 13. Lepofsky, “Long, Arduous Road,” 135.
14. 14. Ontarians with Disabilities Act, 2001, S.O. 2001, c. 32.
15. 15. Accessibility for Ontarians with Disabilities Act, 2005, S.O. 2005, c. 11.
16. 16. AODA Alliance, Report on the Enforcement of the Accessibility for Ontarians with Disabilities Act (Ottawa: AODA Alliance, 2018), See also the related news release by the Grassroots Disability Coalitions, Ottawa, Ontario, 2018. https://www.aodaalliance.org/whats-new/news-release-grassroots-disability-coalitions-new-report-reveals-five-consecutive-years-of-rampant-violations-of-ontarios-disabilities-act-known-to-the-wynne-government-and-ineffective-provinci/; Michelle McQuigge, “Federal Government Passes Canada’s First National Accessibility Legislation,” National Post, May 30, 2019.
17. 17. Michelle McQuigge, “What Will Canada’s New Accessibility Law in 2018 Look Like?,” Toronto Star, December 29, 2017.
18. 18. Although the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms was patriated in 1982, section 15 did not come into effect until 1985.
19. 19. Rubab, Profile of Persons with Disabilities.
20. 20. Rubab, Profile of Persons with Disabilities, 4.
21. 21. “Immigration and People with Disabilities,” Council of Canadians with Disabilities (CCD) website, http://www.ccdonline.ca/en/socialpolicy/immigration.
22. 22. “Immigration and People with Disabilities,” CCD website.
23. 23. Immigration and Refugee Protection Act, S.C. 2001, c. 27.
24. 24. Evaluation Division, Immigration, Refugees and Citizenship Canada (IRCC), “Immigration, Refugees and Citizenship Canada, Evaluation of the Health Screening and Notification Program, ref. no.: E8-2013, November, 2015, http://ow.ly/jkEE309RLK3.
25. 25. See Catherine Dauvergne, “International Human Rights in Canadian Immigration Law—The Case of the Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada,” Indiana Journal of Global Legal Studies 19 (2012): 305–26.
26. 26. Theresa Wright, “After 40 Years, Federal Government Removes Barriers to Disabled Immigrants,” National Post, April 16, 2018.
27. 27. Sexual Sterilization Act, R.S.A. 1955, c. 194, s. 6(1).
28. 28. Based on the Mental Deficiency Act (1927); see Anselm Eldergill, Mental Health Review Tribunal – Law and Practice (London, Dublin, and Hong Kong: Sweet & Maxwell, 1997), 72.
29. 29. Quoted in John Schmidt, “Agricultural Alberta,” Calgary Herald, March 27, 1931, 61.
30. 30. Rosemarie Garland-Thomson, “The Case for Conserving Disability,” Journal of Bioethical Inquiry 9, no. 3 (2012): 339–55.
31. 31. Kerry Abrams and R. Kent Piacenti, “Immigration’s Family Values,” Virginia Law Journal 100, no. 7 (2014): 629–709.
32. 32. Susan Donaldson James, “Baby Sent to Foster Care for 57 Days Because Parents Are Blind,” ABC News, July 28, 2010, http://abcnews.go.com/Health/missouri-takes-baby-blind-parents/story?id=11263491.
33. 33. Eric Schultz, “Blind Independence Couple Gets Newborn Back after 57 Days,” KSHB Kansas City, July 21, 2010.
34. 34. James, “Baby Sent to Foster Care.”

CHAPTER 10

1. 1. “What is Disability Studies,” Society for Disability Studies website, <https://disstudies.org/index.php/about-sds/what-is-disability-studies/>, accessed on January 11, 2020.
2. 2. Dan Goodley, “Dis/entangling Critical Disability Studies,” Disability & Society 28, no. 6 (2012): 631–44.
3. 3. Encyclopedia of Disability, ed. Gary L. Albrecht (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 2006), s.v. “ableism”; Gregor Wolbring, “Ability Privilege: A Needed Addition to Privilege Studies,” Journal for Critical Animal Studies 12, no. 1 (2014): 118–41.
4. 4. Gregor Wolbring, “Expanding Ableism: Taking Down the Ghettoization of Impact of Disability Studies Scholars,” Societies 2, no. 1 (2012): 75–83.
5. 5. Gregor Wolbring, “ ‘Culture of Peace’ from an Ability and Disability Studies Lens,” in Expanding Peace Ecology: Peace, Security, Sustainability, Equity and Gender; Perspectives of IPRA’s Ecology and Peace Commission, ed. Ursula Spring, Oswald Spring, Hans-Guenter Brauch, and Keith Tidball (New York: Springer, 2013), 193.
6. 6. Francis Galton, Inquiries into Human Faculty and Its Development (London: Macmillan, 1883); also in Galton, Hereditary Genius: An Inquiry into Its Laws and Consequences (London: Macmillan, 1869); 30; Galton, “Eugenics: Its Definition, Scope, and Aims,” American Journal of Sociology 10, no. 1 (1904): 1–25.
7. 7. Rudolf Kraemer, Kritik der Eugenik: Vom Standpunkt des Betroffenen (Berlin: Reichsdeutscher Blindenverband, 1933).
8. 8. Douglas C. Baynton, Defectives in the Land: Disability and Immigration in the Age of Eugenics (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2016).
9. 9. Carol Poore, “Recovering Disability Rights in Weimar Germany,” Radical History Review 4, no. 1 (2006): 38–58.
10. 10. Gregor Wolbring, “The Politics of Ableism,” Development 51, no. 2 (2008): 252–58.
11. 11. Gregor Wolbring, “Why NBIC? Why Human Performance Enhancement?,” Innovation: The European Journal of Social Science Research 21, no. 1 (2008): 25–40.
12. 12. Catrine Clay and Michael Leapman, Master Race: The Lebensborn Experiment in Nazi Germany (London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1995).
13. 13. Gregor Wolbring and Lucy Diep, “The Discussions around Precision Genetic Engineering: Role of and Impact on Disabled People,” Laws 5, no. 3 (2016): 1–23.
14. 14. Derrick Thomas, “Geneticist Defends Sterilization in Era before the Pill,” Calgary Herald, June 29, 1995, A14.
15. 15. See, for example, in James Scott Thompson and Margaret Wilson Thompson, Genetics in Medicine (Philadelphia: WB Sauders Company, 1966), 260; Elaine Hutton and Margaret Wilson Thompson, “Carrier Detection and Genetic Counselling in Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy: A Follow-up Study,” Canadian Medical Association Journal 115, no. 8 (1976): 749–52, esp. 751.
16. 16. Mary Ziegler, “Eugenic Feminism: Mental Hygiene, the Women’s Movement, and the Campaign for Eugenic Legal Reform, 1900–1935,” Harvard Journal of Law and Gender 31, no. 2 (2008): 211–35.
17. 17. Elasah Drogin, Margaret Saenger. Gruenderin der modernen Gesellschaft (Abtsteinach, Germany: Aktion Leben, 2000).
18. 18. David Paul Nord, “A Republican Literature: A Study of Magazine Reading and Readers in Late Eighteenth-Century New York,” American Quarterly 40, no. 1 (1988): 42–64.
19. 19. Anna S. Burns, “Beard v. Banks: Restricted Reading, Rehabilitation, and Prisoners’ First Amendment Rights,” Journal of Law and Policy 15, no. 12 (2007): 1225–70; Neil Weinstock Netanel, “Copyright and a Democratic Civil Society,” Yale Law Journal 106, no. 2 (1996): 283–387.
20. 20. Bernard I. Weiner, “The Democratic Exchange of Reading and Writing: Americanization and Periodical Publication, 1750–1810,” Christ Church Library Newsletter 7, no. 1 (2011): 102–13, esp. 102; Weiner, “The Americanization and Periodical Publication, 1750–1810,” Cercles 19, no. 2 (2009): 102–13; Weinstock, “Copyright and a Democratic Civil Society,” 283-387.
21. 21. Lawrence M. Wallack, Mass Media and Health Promotion: The Promise, the Problem, the Challenge (Berkeley: School of Public Health, University of California, 1989); Wallack, “Mass Media and Health Promotion: Promise, Problem, and Challenge,” in Mass Communication and Public Health: Complexities and Conflicts, ed. Charles Atkins and Lawrence Wallack (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1990), 43–57.
22. 22. Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, New York, December 13, 2006, United Nations Treaty Series, vol. 2515, p. 3, https://treaties.un.org/pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg_no=IV-15&chapter=4; United Nations Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, “Monitoring the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities Guidance for Human Rights Monitors” (Professional Training Series No. 17, New York and Geneva, 2017), http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Publications/Disabilities_training_17EN.pdf.
23. 23. See Lori Lyon and Rick Houser, “Nurse Educator Attitudes toward People with Disabilities,” Nursing Education Perspectives 39, no. 3 (2018): 151–55; Beth A. Marks, “Jumping through Hoops and Walking on Egg Shells or Discrimination, Hazing, and Abuse of Students with Disabilities?,” Journal of Nursing Education 39, no. 5 (2000): 205–10; and Eamonn Slevin and David Sines, “Attitudes of Nurses in a General Hospital towards People with Learning Disabilities: Influences of Contact, and Graduate-Non-Graduate Status, A Comparative Study,” Journal of Advanced Nursing 24, no. 6 (1996): 1116–26.
24. 24. Alison Bashford, “Epilogue: Where Did Eugenics Go?,” in The Oxford Handbook of the History of Eugenics, ed. Alison Bashford and Philippa Levine (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010), 539–58.

CONCLUSION

1. 1. Carolyn Strange and Jennifer A. Stephen, “Eugenics in Canada: A Checkered History, 1850s–1990s,” in The Oxford Handbook of the History of Eugenics, ed. Alison Bashford and Philippa Levine (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010), 523–38; Edward Shorter, A History of Psychiatry: From the Era of the Asylum to the Age of Prozac (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1997), 218–24; Mark Adams, The Wellborn Science: Eugenics in Germany, France, Brazil, and Russia (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990), 3–7.
2. 2. See also Sally Ledger and Scott McCracken, Cultural Politics at the Fin de Siècle (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003).
3. 3. José Brunner, “Psychiatry, Psychoanalysis and Politics during the First World War,” Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences 27, no. 4 (1991): 352–65. On the relationship of health care and policy reforms in the wider context of increasing industrialization in modern Western societies in the early 1900s, see, for example, Joachim Radkau, “The Neurasthenic Experience in Imperial Germany: Expeditions into Patient Records and Side-Looks upon General History,” in Cultures of Neurasthenia: From Beard to the First World War, ed. Marijke Gijswijt-Hofstra and Roy Porter (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 2001), 199–217.
4. 4. On increasing social clashes in the spheres of gender and class during the 1920s and early 1930s, see Paul Weindling, Health, Race and German Politics between National Unification and Nazism, 1870–1945 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), 61–105.
5. 5. Volker Roelcke, “Funding the Scientific Foundations of Race Policies: Ernst Ruedin and the Impact of Career Resources on Psychiatric Genetics, ca. 1910–1945,” in Man, Medicine, and the State: The Human Body as an Object of Government Sponsored Medical Research in the 20th Century, ed. Wolfgang U. Eckart (Stuttgart: Franz Steiner, 2006), 73–87.
6. 6. Volker Roelcke, “Psychiatry in Munich and Yale, ca. 1920–1935: Mutual Perceptions and Relations, and the Case of Eugen Kahn (1887–1973),” in International Relations in Psychiatry: Britain, America, and Germany to World War II, ed. Volker Roelcke, Paul Weindling, and Louise Westwood (Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press, 2010), 156–78.
7. 7. Philipp Blom, The Vertigo Years: Europe, 1900–1914 (New York: Basic Books, 2008).
8. 8. See, for example, Ian Dowbiggin, The Sterilization Movement and Global Fertility in the Twentieth Century (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008), 1–16; and Erika Dyck, Facing Eugenics: Reproduction, Sterilization, and the Politics of Choice (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2013), 143–68.
9. 9. Joseph W. Easton and Robert Weil, Culture and Mental Disorders: A Comparative Study of the Hutterites and Other Populations (Glencoe, IL: Free Press, 1955).
10. 10. See Paul Weindling, ed., Healthcare in Private and Public from the Early Modern Period to 2000 (London: Routledge, 2014).
11. 11. Frank W. Stahnisch, A New Field in Mind: A History of Interdisciplinarity in the Early Brain Sciences (Montréal and Kingston: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2020), 131–200.
12. 12. Frank W. Stahnisch, “The Early Eugenics Movement and Emerging Professional Psychiatry: Conceptual Transfers and Personal Relationships between Germany and North America, 1880s to 1930s,” Canadian Bulletin of Medical History 31, no. 1 (2014): 17–40; Frank W. Stahnisch and Fred Weizmann, eds., “Eugenics and Psychiatry—Analyzing the Origin, Application, and Perception of Early Forced Sterilization Programs from a Medical History Viewpoint,” in ISHN and Cheiron, ed. University of Calgary (Calgary, AB: University of Calgary, 2011); accessed on August 27, 2014, www.ucalgary.ca/ISHN_Cheiron/node/39.
13. 13. Karen Stote, An Act of Genocide: Colonialism and the Sterilization of Aboriginal Women (Halifax and Winnipeg: Fernwood, 2015); Stote, “An Act of Genocide: Eugenics, Indian Policy and the Sterilization of Aboriginal Women in Canada” (PhD diss., University of New Brunswick, 2012).
14. 14. See Douglas Francis, R., Robert Jones, and Donald B. Smith, Origins: Canadian History to Confederation (Toronto: Harcourt Brace Canada, 2004); and, Douglas Francis, R., Robert Jones, and Donald B. Smith, Destinies: Canadian History since Confederation (Toronto: Harcourt Brace Canada, 2007), 173; as well as Rankin K. Hay, Neurosurgery and Neurological Science in Manitoba, 1884–1984 (Winnipeg: Schacht, 2003), 3.
15. 15. Warren Elofson, Frontier Cattle Ranching in the Land and Times of Charlie Russell (Montréal and Kingston: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2004), 42–62.
16. 16. See the Eugenics Archives website, http://eugenicsarchive.ca.
17. 17. Frank W. Stahnisch, “The Early Eugenics Movement and Emerging Professional Psychiatry: Conceptual Transfers and Personal Relationships between Germany and North America, 1880s to 1930s,” Canadian Bulletin of Medical History 31, no. 1 (2014): 17–40.
18. 18. See Angus McLaren, Our Own Master Race: Eugenics in Canada, 1885–1945 (Toronto: McClelland & Stewart, 1990), 15–18; Dyck, Facing Eugenics; Erna Kurbegović, “The Influence of the Manitoba Mental Hygiene Survey, 1918,” Western Humanities Review 69, no. 3 (2016): 298–323.
19. 19. Strange and Stephen, “Eugenics in Canada.”
20. 20. See, for example, David Gibson, “Involuntary Sterilization of the Mentally Retarded: A Western Canadian Phenomenon,” Canadian Psychiatric Association Journal 19, no. 1 (1974): 59–63; and Neal Ross Holtan, “The Eitels and Their Hospital,” Minnesota Medicine 36 (2003): 52–54.
21. 21. Paul Lerner, Hysterical Men: War, Psychiatry, and the Politics of Trauma in Germany, 1890–1930 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press), 36-39.
22. 22. Joachim Radkau, Das Zeitalter der Nervositaet. Deutschland zwischen Bismarck und Hitler (Munich: Fink Verlag, 1998), 9–15; Axel Karenberg, “Klinische Neurologie in Deutschland bis zum Ersten Weltkrieg—die Begruender des Faches und der Fachgesellschaft,” in 100 Jahre Deutsche Gesellschaft fuer Neurologie, ed. Detlef Koempf (Berlin: Deutsche Gesellschaft fuer Neurologie, 2007), 20–29.
23. 23. Heinz-Peter Schmiedebach, “The Public’s View of Neurasthenia in Germany—Looking for a New Rhythm of Life,” in Gijswijt-Hofstra and Porter, Cultures of Neurasthenia, 219–38; Wolfgang U. Eckart, “ ‘Die wachsende Nervositaet unserer Zeit’—Medizin und Kultur im Fin de siècle am Beispiel der Modekrankheit Neurasthenie,” in Psychiatrie um die Jahrhundertwende, ed. Fritz Reimer (Heilbronn, Germany: Weinsberger Kolloquium, 1994), 9–38; Hans-Georg Hofer, “War Neurosis and Viennese Psychiatry in World War One,” in Uncovered Fields: Perspectives in First World War Studies, ed. Jenny Macleod and Pierre Purseigle (Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2004), 243–60.
24. 24. Johannes Hendrikus Burgers, “Max Nordau, Madison Grant, and Racialized Theories of Ideology,” Journal of the History of Ideas 72, no. 1 (2011): 119–40.
25. 25. See, for example, Volker Roelcke, “Electrified Nerves, Degenerated Bodies: Medical Discourses in Neurasthenia in Germany, ca. 1990–1914,” in Gijswijt-Hofstra and Porter, Cultures of Neurasthenia, 177–97; William H. Tucker, The Funding of Scientific Racism: Wickliffe Draper and the Pioneer Fund (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2002), 32–47.
26. 26. Roelcke, “Electrified Nerves.”
27. 27. Joan Sangster, Dreams of Equality: Women on the Canadian Left, 1920–1950 (Toronto: McClelland & Stewart, 1989).
28. 28. On the issue of eugenics-oriented public health, eugenic, and immigration policies in Nazi Germany, see the excellent study by Andreas Strippel, NS-Volkstumspolitik und die Neuordnung Europas. Rassenpolitische Selektion der Einwandererzentralstelle des Chefs der Sicherheitspolizei und des SD (1939–1945) (Paderborn, Germany: Ferdinand Schoeningh Verlag, 2011), 105–93; on those policies’ implications for the disciplines of psychiatry and neurology, see Paul Weindling, John W. Thompson: Psychiatrist in the Shadow of the Holocaust (Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press, 2010), 3–10.
29. 29. Diane B. Paul, John Stenhouse, and Hamish G. Spencer, “Introduction: Eugenics as a Transnational Subject: The British Dominions,” in Eugenics at the Edges of Empire: New Zealand, Australia, Canada and South Africa, ed. Diane B. Paul, Hamish G. Spencer, and John Stenhouse (Cham, NY: Palgrave Macmillan, 2017), 1–19.
30. 30. See Weindling, Health, Race and German Politics, 155–69.
31. 31. Stefan Kuehl, The Nazi Connection: Eugenics, American Racism, and German National Socialism (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), 53–64.
32. 32. Renate Rissom, Fritz Lenz und die Rassenhygiene (Husum, Germany: Matthiesen Verlag, 1983), 83–97. Often these exchanges included the German émigré biologist Leo Loeb (1869–1959), with whom Charles B. Davenport corresponded regarding funding for German brain psychiatry, on behalf of the Carnegie Institution of Washington and the Rockefeller Foundation in New York. Furthermore, Loeb, who had close contacts among eugenic researchers on both sides of the Atlantic, had advisory-member status on genetic issues at the Eugenics Records Office in Cold Spring Harbor. See, for example, correspondence from Leo Loeb with the Eugenics Record Office in Cold Spring Harbor, 1942–43, FC0002, correspondence C–Ha, box 2, folder: Leo Loeb, Leo Loeb fonds, Archives and Rare Books Division of the Becker Library, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, United States.
33. 33. Fritz Lenz, “Eugenics in Germany,” Journal of Heredity 15, no. 2 (1924): 223.
34. 34. See also Jonathan Harwood, Styles of Scientific Thought: The German Genetic Community, 1900–1933 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993), 138–80.
35. 35. Rissom, Fritz Lenz.
36. 36. Fritz Lenz, Menschliche Auslese und Rassenhygiene (Eugenik) (Munich: Lehmann, 1921).
37. 37. See also Véronique Mottier, “Eugenics and the State: Policy-Making in Comparative Perspective,” in Bashford and Levine, Oxford Handbook of the History of Eugenics, 134–53; and Véronique Mottier and Natalia Gerodetti, “Eugenics and Social-Democracy: Or, How the Left Tried to Eliminate the ‘Weeds’ from Its National Gardens,” New Formations 60, no. 1 (2006–7): 35–49.
38. 38. Alfred Hoche, ed., Handbuch der gerichtlichen Psychiatrie, 3rd ed., comp. Gustav Aschaffenburg (Berlin: Springer, 1934).
39. 39. Anne Harrington, Reenchanted Science: Holism in German Culture from Wilhelm II to Hitler (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996), 178–96.
40. 40. Paul Eden, Socialism and Eugenics (Manchester: National Labour Press, 1911).
41. 41. Robert N. Proctor, Racial Hygiene: Medicine under the Nazis (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1980), 145–48.
42. 42. Kuehl, Nazi Connection, 20.
43. 43. Stahnisch, A New Field in Mind, 183–186.
44. 44. Hans-Peter Kroener, Von der Rassenhygiene zur Humangenetik (Stuttgart: Gustav Fischer, 1998), 16–39.
45. 45. Kroener, Von der Rassenhygiene, 28–29.
46. 46. Matthias M. Weber, Ernst Ruedin: Eine kritische Biographie (Berlin: Springer, 1993), 114–56; Roelcke, “Programm und Praxis der psychiatrischen Genetik an der Deutschen Forschungsanstalt fuer Psychiatrie unter Ernst Ruedin: Zum Verhaeltnis von Wissenschaft, Politik und Rasse-Begriff vor und nach 1933.” Medizinhistorisches Journal 37, no. 1 (2002): 21–55.
47. 47. Erwin Ruedin to His Excellency Herrn Staatsminister Schmidt-Ott, January 16, 1930, America’s Great Depression Portfolio, 45–46, Historisches Archiv des Max-Planck-Instituts fuer Psychiatrie, Rockefeller Archive Center, International Finance Corporation (in alliance with the Rockefeller Foundation, Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Brain Research, Berlin-Buch (hereafter KWIBR).
48. 48. “Your Excellency have shown in your invitation from Nov-3 [1930] that the anthropological research endeavours in the German ‘population’ shall be put on a much broader basis. [. . .] However, this branch of Volkskunde also needs to be supplemented with human–biological and human–medical science, as well as with studies in animals and plants. These complementary studies are important because they can give insights into the undisturbed developments of race, when only the appropriate objects are correctly chosen. . . . From the drosophila fly we can harvest 25 generations in only one year! . . . And when regular and constant hereditary factors were studied in the past, it was found that not all hereditary modes applied to human reproduction, making it necessary to conduct new animal experiments again. It is particularly my collaborator N[icolai]. Timoféeff–Ressovsky [1900–81] who has developed this important field of study and who began to elucidate the inconstantly manifest hereditary factors in (neurological) disease.” Oskar Vogt to Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft president Friedrich Schmidt-Ott, December 2, 1930, America’s Great Depression Portfolio, 64–65, Historisches Archiv des Max-Planck-Instituts fuer Psychiatrie, RAC, International Finance Corporation, KWIBR; translation and italics by author.
49. 49. Typescript of historical précis Geheimnisse des Gehirns. Weg und Werk des Hirnforscherehepaars Cécile and Oskar Vogt by institute assistant Thea Luers, ca. 1950, 148pp., 31–4, KWI for Brain Research fonds, Historical Archive of the Max Planck Society, Berlin, Germany.
50. 50. As an indication of the magnitude of these exchanges, there were two hundred North Americans at the DFA alone. Kraepelin himself spoke of the educational value of “his institute” in only the highest forms of praise in 1920: “I am pleased that I could help to bring this work [the creation of the DFA for Psychiatry] into existence, as the necessity for such research [an interdisciplinary exploration of the various perspectives in brain psychiatry] has probably not been more obvious at any other time in our history. We hope that the intended further development of this haven of German science will help to reconstruct our national integrity effectively.” Kraepelin, Memoirs, 190.
51. 51. Frank W. Stahnisch, “Flexible Antworten—Offene Fragen: Zu den Foerderungsstrategien der Rockefellerstiftung fuer die deutsche Hirnforschung im Nationalsozialismus,” Journal fuer Neurologie, Neurochirurgie und Psychiatrie 12, no. 2 (2011): 56–58.
52. 52. Weber, Ernst Ruedin, 53–92.
53. 53. Letter by Alan Gregg to clinical psychiatrist and epidemiologist Roy Grinker (1900–93), Chicago, November 8, 1935, Alan Gregg (Germany) fonds, Rockefeller Foundation, series 106, Rockefeller Archive Center, Sleepy Hollow, New York, United States; see also Cornelius Borck, “Mediating Philanthropy in Changing Political Circumstances: The Rockefeller Foundation’s Funding for Brain Research in Germany, 1930–1950,” Rockefeller Archive Center Research Reports, April 2001, http://www.rockarch.org/publications/resrep/borck.pdf.
54. 54. See Theodore M. Brown, “Friendship and Philanthropy: Henry Severest, Alan Gregg and the Rockefeller Foundation,” in Making Medical History: The Life and Time of Henry E. Sigerist, ed. Elizabeth Fee and Theodore M. Brown (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997), 288–311.
55. 55. Denyse Baillargeon, Babies for the Nation: The Medicalization of Motherhood in Québec, 1910–1970 (Waterloo, ON: Wilfred Laurier University Press, 2009).
56. 56. Rhodri Hayward, “Germany and the Making of ‘English’ Psychiatry,” in Roelcke, Weindling, and Westwood, International Relations in Psychiatry, 67–90.
57. 57. Ernst Klee, Auschwitz, die NS Medizin und ihre Opfer (Frankfurt am Main: S. Fischer, 1997), 434–36.
58. 58. This has been shown by recent scholarship both for the United States since 1900 and for Germany after 1905. Kuehl, Nazi Connection, 27–63.
59. 59. Weindling, Health, Race and German Politics, 305–98.
60. 60. Proctor, Racial Hygiene, 5.
61. 61. Proctor, Racial Hygiene, 1.
62. 62. Garland-Thomson, Rosemarie, “The Case for Conserving Disability,” Journal of Bioethical Inquiry 9, no. 3 (2012): 339.
63. 63. Erika Dyck and Alex Deighton, Managing Madness: Weyburn Mental Hospital and the Transformation of Psychiatric Care in Canada (Winnipeg: University of Manitoba Press, 2017). See also the explicit comparison of neighbouring provinces Alberta and Saskatchewan in Karolina Kowalewski and Yasmin Mayne, “The Translation of Eugenic Ideology into Public Health Policy: The Case of Alberta and Saskatchewan,” in The Proceedings of the 18th Annual History of Medicine Days Conference, ed. Lisa Peterman, Kerry Sun, and Frank W. Stahnisch (Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2012), 53–74.
64. 64. Robert Lampard, Alberta’s Medical History: Young and Lusty and Full of Life (Red Deer, AB: Friesens, 2008), 212.
65. 65. See Volker Roelcke, “Die Etablierung der psychiatrischen Genetik in Deutschland, Grossbritannien und den USA, ca. 1910–1960. Zur untrennbaren Geschichte von Eugenik und Humangenetik,” Acta Historica Leopoldina 48, no. 2 (2007): 173–90; and Peter Hoff and Matthias M. Weber, “Sozialdarwinismus und die Psychiatrie im Nationalsozialismus,” Der Nervenarzt 11, no. 10 (2002): 1017–18.
66. 66. Ilana Loewy, “The Strength of Loose Concepts: Boundary Concepts, Federative Experimental Strategies and Disciplinary Growth: The Case of Immunology,” History of Science 30, no. 4 (1992): 371–439.
67. 67. Adams, Wellborn Science, 6.
68. 68. Kuehl, Nazi Connection, 6–20.
69. 69. Philip R. Reilly, “Eugenics and Involuntary Sterilization: 1907–2015,” Annual Review of Genomics and Human Genetics 16, no. 3 (2015): 351–68.