Chapter 24 Grammar Handbook

Learning Objectives

• Identify the components of a grammatically correct sentence
• Identify and correct the four most serious sentence errors
• Define subject-verb agreement and correct errors in subject-verb agreement
• Use verb tense to effectively convey time
• Identify pronouns and their antecedents
• Avoid errors in pronoun agreement
• Use adjectives and adverbs correctly to modify nouns and verbs
• Identify modifiers and avoid misplaced and dangling modifiers

Imagine you are reading a book for school. You need to find specific information that you can use for an assignment. However, when you begin to read, you notice that the book has very little punctuation. The sentences aren’t organized into paragraphs. Instead, there is one block of text in which sentences seem randomly ordered. Most likely, this book would frustrate and confuse you. Without clear and concise sentences, it is difficult to find the information you need.

For students, academics, and professionals, clear communication is important. Whether you are typing an email, a paper, or a report, it is your responsibility to present your thoughts and ideas clearly, coherently, and precisely.

In university classes or in the workplace, you should aim to present a professional image. Your clothes say something about you when meeting face-to-face, and your writing represents you in your absence. Grammatical mistakes in your writing or even in speaking can make a negative impression on professors, classmates, co-workers, clients, and potential employers.

Writing in complete sentences is one way to ensure that you communicate well. This section explains how to recognize basic sentence structures and write clear sentences and how to avoid some common writing errors.

Components of a Sentence

A complete sentence needs to make sense on its own. All complete sentences contain at least one independent clause. A clause is a group of words that contains a subject (a noun that identifies who is acting) and a predicate (a verb that indicates the main action). An independent clause can stand alone as a grammatically correct complete thought. Identify an independent clause by reading it on its own to see if it contains a complete thought and looking for the subject and the verb. The following sentence contains an independent clause:

The inspector arrived at 4:00 p.m.

Subject

When you read a sentence, you may first look for the subject, or what the sentence is about. The subject usually appears at the beginning of a sentence. The subject is usually a noun or a pronoun. A noun is a word that identifies a person, place, thing, or idea (for example, a car, a project, a woman, Beth, a university, Athabasca, money, hope, love). A pronoun is a word that replaces a noun. Common pronouns are I, he, she, it, you, they, and we.

In the examples throughout this section, subjects will be underlined. In the following examples, the subject is underlined:

Ahmed is the project manager for this project. He will give us our assignments.

In the first sentence, the subject is a person: Ahmed. In the second sentence, the pronoun he replaces the noun and refers back to Ahmed.

The computer lab is where we will work. It will be open twenty-four hours a day.

In the first sentence, the subject is a place: computer lab. In the second sentence, the pronoun it substitutes for computer lab as the subject.

The project will run for three weeks. It will have a quick turnaround.

In the first sentence, the subject is a thing: project. In the second sentence, the pronoun it stands in for the project.

Compound Subjects

A sentence may refer to more than one person, place, or thing as the subject. These subjects are called compound subjects. Compound subjects are useful when you want to discuss more than one subject. For example,

Desmond and Maria have been working on that design for almost a year.
Books, magazines, and online articles are all good resources.

Two people (Desmond and Maria) are the subjects of the first sentence. The second sentence has three subjects: books, magazines, and online articles.

Prepositional Phrases

A sentence often has more than one noun or pronoun in it. You may encounter a group of words that includes a preposition with a noun or a pronoun. Prepositions connect a noun, pronoun, or verb to another word that describes or modifies that noun, pronoun, or verb. Common prepositions include in, on, under, near, by, with, and about. A group of words that begins with a preposition is called a prepositional phrase. A prepositional phrase begins with a preposition and modifies or describes a word. It cannot act as the subject of a sentence. The following bolded phrases are examples of prepositional phrases.

We went on a trip. That pizza place with the famous pizza was on the way. We stopped for lunch.

Practice 24.1

In the following sentences, underline the subjects, and circle the prepositional phrases.

1. The gym is open until nine o’clock tonight.
2. We went to the store to get some ice.
3. The student with the most extra credit will win a homework pass.
4. Maya and Tia found an abandoned cat by the side of the road.
5. The driver of that pickup truck skidded on the ice.
6. Anita won the race with time to spare.
7. The people who work for that company were surprised about the merger.
8. Working in haste means that you are more likely to make mistakes.
9. The soundtrack has over sixty songs in languages from around the world.
10. His latest invention does not work, but it has inspired the rest of us.

Predicate

Once you locate the subject of a sentence, you can move on to the next part of a complete sentence: the main verb. A verb is often an action word that shows what the subject is doing. A verb can also link the subject to a describing word. There are three types of verbs that you can use in a sentence: action verbs, linking verbs, or helping verbs. In the examples throughout this section, verbs will be italicized.

Action Verbs

A verb that connects the subject to an action is called an action verb. An action verb answers the question what is the subject doing? In the following sentences, the action verbs are in italics.

The dog barked at the jogger.
He gave a short speech before we ate.

Linking Verbs

Linking verbs connect the subject of the sentence to a describing word or phrase. The most common linking verb is the verb to be, in any of its forms (such as am, are, is, was, were). The verb to be simply indicates that a situation exists. In the following sentences, the linking verbs are in italics.

The coat was old and dirty.
The clock seemed broken.

If you have trouble distinguishing between action verbs and linking verbs, remember that an action verb shows that the subject is doing something, whereas a linking verb simply connects the subject to another word that describes or modifies the subject, often describing a state of being. A few verbs can be used as either action verbs or linking verbs.

Action verb: The boy looked for his glove.
Linking verb: The boy looked tired.

Although both sentences use the same verb, the two sentences have completely different meanings. In the first sentence, the verb describes the boy’s action. In the second sentence, the verb describes the boy’s appearance, his state of being in that moment. In other words, while the verb look appears the same, it functions differently within each sentence. To some extent, then, the function and meaning of the verb are determined by what follows it.

Helping Verbs

A third type of verb is a helping verb. Helping verbs are verbs that work with the main verb to describe a mood or tense. Helping verbs are usually a form of be, do, or have. The word can is also a helping verb.

The restaurant is known for its variety of dishes.
She does speak up when prompted in class.
We have seen that movie three times.
She can tell when someone walks on her lawn.

Is, does, have, and can are helping verbs and known, speak up, seen, and tell are action verbs.

Practice 24.2

Identify the verb(s) in the following sentence. Identify the type of each verb: linking verb (LV), helping verb (HV), or action verb (AV).

1. The cat sounds ready to come back inside. __________
2. We have not eaten dinner yet. __________
3. It took four people to move the broken-down car. __________
4. The book was filled with notes from class. __________
5. We walked from room to room, inspecting for damage. __________
6. Harold was expecting a package in the mail. __________
7. The clothes still felt damp even though they had been through the dryer twice. __________
8. The teacher who runs the studio is often praised for his restoration work on old masterpieces. __________

Sentence Structure

Now that you know what makes a complete sentence—a subject and a verb that convey a complete thought—you can use other parts of speech to build on this basic structure. Good writers use a variety of sentence structures to make their writing more interesting. This section introduces different sentence structures that you can use to make longer, more complex sentences.

Sentence Patterns

Enhance your writing by using a variety of sentence patterns. There are six basic subject-verb patterns. A sample sentence is provided for each pattern. As you read each sentence, take note of where each part of the sentence falls. Notice that some sentence patterns use action verbs and others use linking verbs.

Subject–Verb

Computers (subject) hum (verb)

Subject–Linking Verb–Noun

Computers (subject) are (linking verb) tools (noun)

Subject–Linking Verb–Adjective

Computers (subject) are (linking verb) expensive (adjective)

Subject–Verb–Adverb

Computers (subject) calculate (verb) quickly (adverb)

Subject–Verb–Direct Object

When you write a sentence with a direct object (DO), make sure that the DO receives the action of the verb.

Sally (subject) rides (verb) a motorcycle (direct object)

Subject–Verb–Indirect Object–Direct Object

In this sentence structure, an indirect object explains to whom or to what the action is being done. The indirect object is a noun or pronoun, and it comes before the direct object in a sentence.

My co-worker (subject) gave (verb) me (indirect object) the reports (direct object)

Practice 24.3

A. On a sheet of paper, write six sentences, each of which demonstrates one of the six basic sentence patterns discussed above. When you have finished, label each part of the sentence (S, V, LV, N, adj., adv., DO, IO). The combination possibilities for these sentences are endless, of course, so there are many correct solutions. Do this exercise with a friend.
B. In a newspaper or magazine or on a website, find an article that interests you. Identify one example of each part of a sentence (S, AV, LV, N, adj., adv., DO, IO). Do this exercise with a friend, sharing articles and results.

Fragments

The sentences you have encountered so far have been independent clauses. As you look more closely at your past writing assignments, you may notice that some of your sentences are not complete. A sentence that is missing a subject or a verb is called a fragment. A fragment may include a description or may express part of an idea, but it does not express a complete thought.

Fragment: Making a mess in the kitchen (missing a subject).
Complete sentence: The children are making a mess in the kitchen.
Fragment: Children in the kitchen with their toys.

You can easily fix a fragment by adding the missing subject or verb. In the second example, the sentence was missing a verb. Adding often make a mess creates an S-V-N sentence structure.

A flowchart to determine if a sentence is complete, asking whether it contains a subject or a verb. — Figure 24.1: Editing Fragments That Are Missing a Subject or a Verb
Illustration by Jessica Tang.

Can you identify what is missing in the following fragments?

Fragment: Told her about the broken vase.
Complete sentence: I told her about the broken vase.
Fragment: The store down on Main Street.
Complete sentence: The store down on Main Street sells music.

Common Sentence Errors

Fragments often occur because of common errors such as starting a sentence with a preposition, a dependent word, an infinitive, or a gerund. If you use the six basic sentence patterns when you write, you should be able to avoid these errors and thus avoid writing fragments.

When you see a preposition, check to see that it is part of a sentence containing a subject and a verb. If it is not connected to a complete sentence, it is a fragment, and you will need to fix this type of fragment by combining it with another sentence. You can add the prepositional phrase to the end of the sentence. If you add it to the beginning of the other sentence, insert a comma after the prepositional phrase.

A flowchart to determine if a sentence that begins with a preposition is complete, asking whether it contains a subject or a verb. — Figure 24.2: Editing Fragments That Begin with a Preposition
Illustration by Jessica Tang.

Example A

Incorrect: After walking over three kilometres. John remembered his wallet.
Correct: After walking over three kilometres, John remembered his wallet.
Correct: John remembered his wallet after walking over three kilometres.

Example B

Incorrect: The dog growled at the vacuum cleaner. When it was switched on.
Correct: When the vacuum cleaner was switched on, the dog growled.
Correct: The dog growled at the vacuum cleaner when it was switched on.

A clause that starts with a dependent word—such as since, because, without, or unless—is similar to a prepositional phrase. Like prepositional phrases, these clauses can be fragments if they are not connected to an independent clause containing a subject and a verb. To fix the problem, add such a fragment to the beginning or end of a sentence. If the fragment is added at the beginning of a sentence, add a comma.

Incorrect: Because we lost power. The entire family overslept.
Correct: Because we lost power, the entire family overslept.
Correct: The entire family overslept because we lost power.
Incorrect: He has been seeing a physical therapist. Since his accident.
Correct: Since his accident, he has been seeing a physical therapist.
Correct: He has been seeing a physical therapist since his accident.

When you encounter a word ending in -ing in a sentence, identify whether or not this word is used as a verb in the sentence. You may also look for a helping verb. If the word is not used as a verb or if no helping verb is used with the -ing verb form, the verb is being used as a noun. An -ing verb form used as a noun is called a gerund.

Verb: I was (helping verb) working (verb) on homework until midnight.
Noun: Working until midnight makes me tired the next morning.

Once you know whether the -ing word is acting as a noun or a verb, look at the rest of the sentence. Does the entire sentence make sense on its own? If not, it is a fragment. Add the parts of speech that are missing or combine the fragment with a nearby sentence.

A flowchart to determine if a sentence that begins with a gerund is complete, asking if the phrase has a helping verb or if it makes sense without one. — Figure 24.3: Editing Fragments That Begin with Gerunds
Illustration by Jessica Tang.

Incorrect: Taking deep breaths. Saul prepared for his presentation.
Correct: Taking deep breaths, Saul prepared for his presentation.
Correct: Saul prepared for his presentation. He was taking deep breaths.
Incorrect: Congratulating the entire team. Sarah raised her glass to toast their success.
Correct: Sarah was congratulating the entire team. She raised her glass to toast their success.
Correct: Congratulating the entire team, Sarah raised her glass to toast their success.

Another error in sentence construction is a fragment that begins with an infinitive. An infinitive is a verb paired with the word to—for example, to run, to write, or to reach. Although infinitives are verbs, they can be used as nouns, adjectives, or adverbs. Correct a fragment that begins with an infinitive by either combining it with another sentence or adding the parts of speech that are missing.

Incorrect: We needed to make three hundred more paper cranes. To reach the one-thousand mark.
Correct: We needed to make three hundred more paper cranes to reach the one-thousand mark.
Correct: We needed to make three hundred more paper cranes. We wanted to reach the one-thousand mark.

Practice 24.4

Copy the following sentences onto a sheet of paper and circle the fragments. Then combine the fragment with the independent clause to create a complete sentence.

1. Working without taking a break. We try to get as much work done as we can in an hour.
2. I needed to bring work home. In order to meet the deadline.
3. Unless the ground freezes too early this fall. We will be planting tulips this year.
4. Turning the lights off after he was done in the kitchen. Robert tries to conserve energy whenever possible.
5. You’ll find what you need if you look. On the shelf next to the potted plant.
6. To find the perfect apartment. Deidre searched online each day.

Run-On Sentences

Just as short, incomplete sentences can be problematic, lengthy sentences can be problematic too. A reader can get lost or lose interest in material that is too dense and rambling. Sentences with two or more independent clauses that have been incorrectly combined are known as run-on sentences. A run-on sentence may be either a fused sentence or a comma splice.

Fused sentence: When two complete sentences are combined into one without any punctuation, the result is a fused sentence.
- A family of foxes lived under our shed young foxes played all over the yard.
Comma splice: When two complete sentences are joined by a comma, the result is a comma splice.
- We looked outside, the kids were hopping on the trampoline.

Both errors can easily be fixed.

Punctuation

One way to correct run-on sentences is to correct the punctuation. For example, adding a period will correct the run-on sentence by creating two separate sentences.

Run-on: There were no seats left, we had to stand in the back.
Correct: There were no seats left. We had to stand in the back.

Using a semicolon between the two complete sentences will also correct the error. A semicolon allows you to keep the two closely related ideas together in one sentence. When you punctuate with a semicolon, make sure that both parts of the sentence are independent clauses. For more information on semicolons, see Chapter 25: Semicolon.

Run-on: The accident closed both lanes of traffic we waited an hour for the wreckage to be cleared.
Complete sentence: The accident closed both lanes of traffic; we waited an hour for the wreckage to be cleared.

When you use a semicolon to separate two independent clauses, you may wish to add a transitional word to show the connection between the two thoughts. After the semicolon, add the transition word and follow it with a comma. For more information on transitional words, see Chapter 25: Semicolon.

Run-on: The project was put on hold we didn’t have time to slow down, so we kept working.
Complete sentence: The project was put on hold; however, we didn’t have time to slow down, so we kept working.

Coordinating Conjunctions

You can also fix run-on sentences by adding a comma and a coordinating conjunction. A coordinating conjunction acts as a link between two independent clauses. These are the seven coordinating conjunctions: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, and so. (The acronym FANBOYS will help you remember this group of coordinating conjunctions.) Use these words appropriately when you want to link the two independent clauses.

Run-on: The new printer was installed, no one knew how to use it.
Complete sentence: The new printer was installed, but no one knew how to use it.

Dependent Words

Adding dependent words is another way to link independent clauses. Like the coordinating conjunctions, dependent words show a relationship between two independent clauses.

Run-on: We took the elevator, the others still got there before us.
Complete sentence: Although we took the elevator, the others got there before us.
Run-on: Cobwebs covered the furniture, the room hadn’t been used in years.
Complete sentence: Cobwebs covered the furniture because the room hadn’t been used in years.

Read the sample email below. Identify three fragments and two comma splices in Isabelle’s email to Mr. Blankenship.

Dear Mr. Blankenship:

The invoice we received yesterday. From your office was dated February 25. This date is incorrect, the date should read February 28, attached is the original invoice with the incorrect date. Please correct the date and resend the invoice. We will be able to send the funds promptly. By the end of the day.

Sincerely,

Isabelle

Isabelle’s email opens with two fragments and two run-on sentences containing comma splices. The email ends with another fragment. What effect would this email have on Mr. Blankenship or other readers? Mr. Blankenship may not think highly of Isabelle’s communication skills or—worse—may not understand the message at all! Communications written in precise, complete sentences are not only more professional but also easier for a reader to understand. Before you hit the “send” button, read your email carefully to make sure that the sentences are complete, do not run together, and are correctly punctuated.

Practice 24.5

Use what you have learned about run-on sentences to correct the following passages:

1. The report is due on Wednesday but we’re flying back from Vancouver that morning. I told the project manager that we would be able to get the report to her later that day she suggested that we come back a day early to get the report done and I told her we had meetings until our flight took off. We emailed our contact, who said that he would check with his boss, she said that the project could afford a delay as long as they wouldn’t have to make any edits or changes to the file our new deadline is next Friday.
2. Anna tried getting a reservation at the restaurant, but when she called they said that there was a waiting list so she put our names down on the list when the day of our reservation arrived we only had to wait thirty minutes because a table opened up unexpectedly which was good because we were able to catch a movie after dinner in the time we’d expected to wait to be seated.
3. Without a doubt, my favourite artist is Leonardo da Vinci, not because of his paintings but because of his fascinating designs, models, and sketches, including plans for scuba gear, a flying machine, and a life-size mechanical lion that actually walked and moved its head. His paintings are beautiful too, especially when you see the computer-enhanced versions researchers use a variety of methods to discover and enhance the paintings’ original colours, the result of which are stunningly vibrant and yet delicate displays of the man’s genius.

Subject-Verb Agreement

Subject-verb agreement is one of the most common sentence errors. Having a solid understanding of this concept will help ensure that your ideas are communicated clearly.

Agreement

Agreement refers to the proper grammatical match between words and phrases. Parts of sentences must agree, or correspond, with other parts in number, person, case, and gender.

• Number. All parts must match in singular or plural forms.
• Person. All parts must match in first-person (I), second-person (you), or third-person (he, she, it, they) forms.
• Case. All parts must match in subjective (I, you, he, she, it, they, we), objective (me, her, him, them, us), or possessive (my, mine, your, yours, his, her, hers, their, theirs, our, ours) forms.
• Gender. All parts must match in male or female forms. This is no longer an absolute. Given the preference of nonbinary people to use they/them/theirs as their preferred pronouns, this has to be taken into account.

Subject-verb agreement describes the match in number between subjects and verbs. Subjects and verbs are either singular or plural. That is, they either refer to one thing (e.g., a cat) or more than one thing (e.g., two or more cats). The subject of a sentence and the verb of a sentence must agree with each other in number. That is, a singular subject belongs with a singular verb form, and a plural subject belongs with a plural verb form. For more information on subjects and verbs, turn back to the section on Subjects earlier in this chapter.

Singular: The cat jumps over the fence.
Plural: The cats jump over the fence.

Regular Verbs

Regular verbs follow a predictable pattern. For example, in the third-person singular, regular verbs always end in -s. Other forms of regular verbs do not end in -s. Study the following regular verb forms in the present tense.

	Singular Form	Plural Form
First person	I live.	We live.
Second person	You live.	You live.
Third person	He/She/It lives.	They live.

Singular: My mother walks to work every morning.

In this sentence, the subject is mother. Because the sentence only refers to one mother, the subject is singular. The verb in this sentence must be in the third-person singular form.

Plural: My friends like the same music as I do.

In this sentence, the subject is friends. Because this subject refers to more than one person, the subject is plural. The verb in this sentence must be in the third-person plural form.

Singular: I read every day.
Plural: We read every day.

In these sentences, the verb form stays the same for the first-person singular and the first-person plural.

Singular: You stretch before you go to bed.
Plural: You stretch before every game.

In these sentences, the verb form stays the same for the second-person singular and the second-person plural. In the singular form, the pronoun you refers to one person. In the plural form, the pronoun you refers to a group of people, such as a team.

Many singular subjects can be made plural by adding an -s. Most regular verbs in the present tense end with an -s in the third-person singular. This does not make the verbs plural.

Singular subject, singular verb: The cat races across the yard.
Plural subject, plural verb: The cats race across the yard.

Practice 24.6

Choose the correct verb form for each of the following sentences.

1. I (brush/brushes) my teeth twice a day.
2. You (wear/wears) the same shoes every time we go out.
3. He (kick/kicks) the soccer ball into the goal.
4. She (watch/watches) foreign films.
5. Catherine (hide/hides) behind the door.
6. We (want/wants) to have dinner with you.
7. You (work/works) together to finish the project.
8. They (need/needs) to score another point to win the game.
9. It (eat/eats) four times a day.
10. David (fix/fixes) his own motorcycle.

Irregular Verbs

Not all verbs follow a predictable pattern. Verbs that do not follow the pattern described above are called irregular verbs. Some of the most common irregular verbs are be, have, and do. Learn the forms of these verbs in the present tense to avoid errors in subject-verb agreement.

Be

Study the different forms of the verb to be in the present tense.

	Singular Form	Plural Form
First person	I am.	We are.
Second person	You are.	You are.
Third person	He/She/It is.	They are.

Have

Study the different forms of the verb to have in the present tense.

	Singular Form	Plural Form
First person	I have.	We have.
Second person	You have.	You have.
Third person	He/She/It has.	They have.

Do

Study the different forms of the verb to do in the present tense.

	Singular Form	Plural Form
First person	I do.	We do.
Second person	You do.	You do.
Third person	He/She/It does.	They do.

Practice 24.7

Choose the correct present-tense form of be, have, or do to complete the following sentences.

1. I __________ sure that you will succeed.
2. They __________ front-row tickets to the show.
3. He __________ a great Elvis impersonation.
4. We __________ so excited to meet you in person!
5. She __________ a fever and a sore throat.
6. You __________ not know what you are talking about.
7. You __________ all going to pass this class.
8. She __________ not going to like that.
9. It __________ appear to be the right size.
10. They __________ ready to take this job seriously.

Errors in Subject-Verb Agreement

Errors in subject-verb agreement can occur when

• a sentence contains a compound subject;
• the subject of the sentence is separate from the verb;
• the subject of the sentence is an indefinite pronoun, such as anyone or everyone;
• the subject of the sentence is a collective noun, such as team or organization; or
• the subject appears after the verb.

Recognizing the sources of common errors in subject-verb agreement will help you avoid these errors in your writing. The next section explains subject-verb agreement errors in more detail.

Compound Subjects

A compound subject is formed by two or more nouns and the coordinating conjunctions and, or, or nor. A compound subject can be made of singular subjects, plural subjects, or a combination of singular and plural subjects.

Compound subjects combined with and take a plural verb form.

Two singular subjects: Alicia and Miguel ride their bikes to the beach.
Two plural subjects: The girls and the boys ride their bikes to the beach.
Singular and plural subjects: Alicia and the boys ride their bikes to the beach.

Compound subjects combined with or and nor are treated separately. The verb must agree with the subject that is nearest to the verb.

Two singular subjects: Neither Elizabeth nor Rianna wants to eat at that restaurant.
Two plural subjects: Neither the kids nor the adults want to eat at that restaurant.
Singular and plural subjects: Neither Elizabeth nor the kids want to eat at that restaurant.
Plural and singular subjects: Neither the kids nor Elizabeth wants to eat at that restaurant.
Two singular subjects: Either you or Jason takes the furniture out of the garage.
Two plural subjects: Either you or the twins take the furniture out of the garage.
Singular and plural subjects: Either Jason or the twins take the furniture out of the garage.
Plural and singular subjects: Either the twins or Jason takes the furniture out of the garage.

Separation of Subjects and Verbs

As you read or write, you may come across a sentence that contains a phrase or clause that separates the subject from the verb. Often, prepositional phrases or dependent clauses add more information to the sentence and appear between the subject and the verb. However, the subject and the verb must still agree.

If you have trouble finding the subject and verb, cross out or ignore the phrases and clauses that begin with prepositions or dependent words. The subject of a sentence will never be in a prepositional phrase or dependent clause.

The following is an example of a subject and verb separated by a prepositional phrase:

The students with the best grades win the academic awards.
The puppy under the table is my favourite.

The following is an example of a subject and verb separated by a dependent clause:

The car that I bought has power steering and a sunroof.
The representatives who are courteous sell the most tickets.

Indefinite Pronouns

Indefinite pronouns refer to an unspecified person, thing, or number. When an indefinite pronoun serves as the subject of a sentence, you will often use a singular verb form.

However, keep in mind that exceptions arise. Some indefinite pronouns may require a plural verb form. To determine whether to use a singular or plural verb with an indefinite pronoun, consider the noun that the pronoun would refer to. If the noun is plural, then use a plural verb with the indefinite pronoun. View the chart to see a list of common indefinite pronouns and the verb forms they agree with.

Indefinite Pronouns That Always Take a Singular Verb	Indefinite Pronouns That Can Take a Singular or Plural Verb
anybody, anyone, anything	all
each	any
everybody, everyone, everything	none
much	some
many
nobody, no one, nothing
somebody, someone, something

Singular: Everybody in the kitchen sings along when that song comes on the radio.

The indefinite pronoun everybody takes a singular verb form because everybody refers to a group performing the same action as a single unit.

Plural: All the people in the kitchen sing along when that song comes on the radio.

The indefinite pronoun all takes a plural verb form because all refers to the plural noun people. Because people is plural, all is plural.

Singular: All the cake is on the floor.

In this sentence, the indefinite pronoun all takes a singular verb form because all refers to the singular noun cake. Because cake is singular, all is singular.

Collective Nouns

A collective noun is a noun that identifies more than one person, place, or thing and considers those people, places, or things one singular unit. Because collective nouns are counted as one, they are singular and require a singular verb. Some commonly used collective nouns are group, team, army, flock, family, government, and class.

Singular: The class is going on a field trip.

In this sentence, class is a collective noun. Although the class consists of many students, the class is treated as a singular unit and requires a singular verb form.

The Subject Follows the Verb

You may encounter sentences in which the subject comes after the verb instead of before the verb. In other words, the subject of the sentence may not appear where you expect it to appear. To ensure proper subject-verb agreement, you must correctly identify the subject and the verb.

Here or There

In sentences that begin with here or there, the subject follows the verb.
- Here is my wallet!
- There are thirty dolphins in the water.

If you have trouble identifying the subject and the verb in sentences that start with here or there; it may help to reverse the order of the sentence so the subject comes first.

My wallet is here!
Thirty dolphins are in the water.

Questions

When you ask questions, a question word (who, what, where, when, why, or how) appears first. The verb and then the subject follow.

Who are the people you are related to?
When am I going to go to the grocery store?

Practice 24.8

Correct the errors in subject-verb agreement in the following sentences. If there are no errors in subject-verb agreement, write OK.

1. My dog and cats chases one another all the time.
2. The books that are in my library is the best I have ever read.
3. Everyone are going to the concert except me.
4. My family are moving to Nova Scotia.
5. Here is the lake I told you about.
6. There is the newspapers I was supposed to deliver.
7. Which room is bigger?
8. When are the movie going to start?
9. My sister and brother cleans up after themselves.
10. Some of the clothes is packed away in the basement.

Practice 24.9

Correct the errors in subject-verb agreement in the following paragraph.

Dear Hiring Manager,

I feels that I am the ideal candidate for the receptionist position at your company. I has three years of experience as a receptionist in a company that is similar to yours. My phone skills and written communication is excellent. These skills and others that I have learned on the job helps me understand that every person in a company helps make the business a success. At my current job, the team always say that I am very helpful. Everyone appreciate when I go the extra mile to get the job done right. My current employer and co-workers feels that I am an asset to the team. I is efficient and organized. Is there any other details about me that you would like to know? If so, please contact me. Here are my résumé. You can reach me by email or phone. I looks forward to speaking with you in person.

Thanks,

Felicia Potvin

Verb Tense

Suppose you have to give an oral presentation about what you did last summer. How do you make it clear that you are talking about the past and not about the present or the future? Using the correct verb tense can help you do this. Mistakes in tense often leave a listener or reader confused about timelines.

Verbs indicate actions or states of being in time: the past, present, or future. Verb tense identifies the time of action described in a sentence. Verbs take different forms to indicate different tenses. Verb tenses indicate

• an action or state of being in the present,
• an action or state of being in the past, or
• an action or state of being in the future.

Helping verbs, such as be and have, also work to create verb tenses, such as the future tense.

Present tense: Tim walks to the store. (Singular subject)
Present tense: Sue and Kimmy walk to the store. (Plural subject)
Past tense: Yesterday, they walked to the store to buy some bread. (Plural subject)
Future tense: Tomorrow, they will walk to the store again. (Plural subject)

Practice 24.10

Complete the following sentences by selecting the correct form of the verb in simple present, simple past, or simple future tenses.

1. Severe dry spells (have always been, had always been, will always be) a feature of prairie settlement, appearing on average every twenty years or so.
2. The 1930s, however, (are, were, will be) forever remembered for both the persistence and extent of the drought.
3. While other provinces—in particular, Ontario and Quebec—(are recovering, were recovering, will be recovering) from the Great Depression, Saskatchewan (experiences, experienced, will experience) its most far-reaching drought in 1937.
4. Saskatchewan’s total wheat production (drops, dropped, will drop) by a third during the 1930s even though wheat acreage (increases, increased, will increase) by more than a million acres during the same period.
5. In other words, more cropped land (is actually producing, was actually producing, will actually produce) less wheat during this time.
6. Hot, drying winds (scoop up, scooped up, will scoop up) loose topsoil into dust blizzards that (makes, made, will make) outside activity nearly impossible.
7. An estimated quarter of a million acres of Saskatchewan land (is blowing, was blowing, will blow) out of control by the mid-1930s.
8. Darkness at noon (is, was, will be) not uncommon at this time, while churning dirt (piles up, piled up, will pile up) in drifts along buildings, fence lines, and ridges.
9. Homemakers (face, faced, will face) a frustrating battle trying to keep the dust out of their homes, placing wet rags on windowsills and hanging wet sheets over doorways.
10. But it still (manages, managed, will manage) to seep through, depositing a thick film on everything.
11. Tables (are, were, will be) often set with the cups and bowls upside down, a temporary response that eventually (becomes, became, will become) a lifelong habit for some.

Regular Verbs

Regular verbs follow regular patterns when shifting from the present to past tense. For example, to form a past-tense or past-participle verb form, add -ed or -d to the end of a verb. Below are just a few of the many regular verbs; this list is not complete.

Simple Present	Past	Simple Present	Past
walk	walked	talk	talked
end	ended	cook	cooked
start	started	clean	cleaned
repeat	repeated	wash	washed
ask	asked	need	needed

Irregular Verbs

The past tense of irregular verbs is not formed using the patterns that regular verbs follow.

Table 24.1: Irregular Verbs
Simple Present	Past	Simple Present	Past
am/is/are	was/were	lose	lost
become	became	make	made
begin	began	mean	meant
blow	blew	meet	met
break	broke	pay	paid
bring	brought	put	put
build	built	quit	quit
burst	burst	read	read
buy	bought	ride	rode
catch	caught	ring	rang
choose	chose	rise	rose
come	came	run	ran
cut	cut	say	said
dive	dove (dived)	see	saw
do	did	seek	sought
draw	drew	sell	sold
drink	drank	send	sent
drive	drove	set	set
eat	ate	shake	shook
fall	fell	shine	shone (shined)
feed	fed	shrink	shrank
feel	felt	sing	sang
fight	fought	sit	sat
find	found	sleep	slept
fly	flew	speak	spoke
forget	forgot	spend	spent
forgive	forgave	spring	sprang
freeze	froze	stand	stood
get	got	steal	stole
give	gave	strike	struck
go	went	swim	swam
grow	grew	swing	swung
have	had	take	took
hear	heard	teach	taught
hide	hid	tear	tore
hold	held	tell	told
hurt	hurt	think	thought
keep	kept	throw	threw
know	knew	understand	understood
lay	laid	wake	woke
lead	led	wear	wore
leave	left	win	won
let	let	wind	wound

To create the future tense, combine will with the present-tense form of the verb.

Present tense: Lauren keeps all her letters.
Past tense: Lauren kept all her letters.
Future tense: Lauren will keep all her letters.

Practice 24.11

Complete the following sentences by selecting the correct form of the irregular verb in simple present, simple past, or simple future tense. Copy the corrected sentence onto your own sheet of paper.

1. Marina finally (forgived, forgave, will forgive) her sister for snooping around her room.
2. The house (shook, shaked, shakes) as the airplane rumbled overhead.
3. I (buyed, bought, buy) several items of clothing at the thrift store on Wednesday.
4. She (put, putted, puts) the lotion in her shopping basket and proceeded to the checkout line.
5. The prized goose (layed, laid, lay) several golden eggs last night.
6. Mr. Batista (teached, taught, taughted) the class how to use correct punctuation.
7. I (drink, drank, will drink) several glasses of sparkling cider instead of champagne on New Year’s Eve next year.
8. Although Hector (growed, grew, grows) three inches in one year, we still called him “Little Hector.”
9. Yesterday our tour guide (lead, led, will lead) us through a maze of people in West Edmonton Mall.
10. The rock band (burst, bursted, bursts) onto the music scene with their catchy songs.

Practice 24.12

Write a sentence using the correct form of the verb tense shown below.

1. Throw (past)
2. Paint (simple present)
3. Smile (future)
4. Tell (past)
5. Share (simple present)

Maintaining Consistent Verb Tense

Consistent verb tense means the same verb tense is used throughout a sentence or a paragraph. As you write and revise, it is important to use the same verb tense consistently and to avoid shifting from one tense to another unless there is a good reason for the tense shift. In the following box, see whether you notice the difference between a sentence with consistent tense and one with inconsistent tense.

Inconsistent tense: The crowd starts cheering as Melina approached the finish line. (Present + past)
Consistent tense: The crowd started cheering as Melina approached the finish line. (Past + past)
Consistent tense: The crowd starts cheering as Melina approaches the finish line. (Present + present)

Practice 24.13

Edit the following paragraph by correcting the inconsistent verb tense.

In the Middle Ages, most people lived in villages and work as agricultural labourers, or peasants. Every village has a “lord,” and the peasants worked on his land. Much of what they produce go to the lord and his family. What little food was left over goes to support the peasants’ families. In return for their labour, the lord offers them protection. A peasant’s day usually began before sunrise and involves long hours of back-breaking work, which includes ploughing the land, planting seeds, and cutting crops for harvesting. The working life of a peasant in the Middle Ages is usually demanding and exhausting.

Pronouns

If there were no pronouns, all types of writing would be tedious to read. We would soon be frustrated by reading sentences like Bob said that Bob was tired or Christina told the class that Christina received an A on Christina’s exam.

Pronouns help a writer avoid constant repetition. Knowing just how pronouns work is an important aspect of clear and concise writing.

Pronoun Agreement

A pronoun is a word that takes the place of (or refers back to) a noun or another pronoun. The word or words a pronoun refers to is called the antecedent of the pronoun.

1. Lani complained that she was exhausted.
- • She refers to Lani.
- • Lani is the antecedent of she.
2. Jeremy left the party early, so I did not see him until Monday at work.
- • Him refers to Jeremy.
- • Jeremy is the antecedent of him.
3. Marina and Rosalie have been best friends ever since they were freshmen in high school.
- • They refers to Marina and Rosalie.
- • Marina and Rosalie is the antecedent of they.

Pronoun agreement errors occur when the pronoun and the antecedent do not match or agree with each other. There are several types of pronoun agreement.

Agreement in Number

If the pronoun takes the place of or refers to a singular noun, the pronoun must also be singular. The only exception is they, which can also function as a gender-neutral singular pronoun.

For example, it is no longer incorrect to say: If a student (sing.) wants to return a book to the bookstore, they (gender-neutral sing.) must have a receipt.
Also correct: If a student (sing.) wants to return a book to the bookstore, he or she (sing.) must have a receipt.
- *If it seems too wordy to use he or she, change the antecedent to a plural noun.
And also correct: If students (pl.) want to return a book to the bookstore, they (pl.) must have a receipt.

Table 24.2: Agreement in Person
	Singular Pronouns			Plural Pronouns
First person	I	me	my (mine)	we	us	our (ours)
Second person	you	you	your (yours)	you	you	your (your)
Third person	he, she, it, they	him, her, it, they	his, her, its, their(s)	they	them	their (theirs)

If you use a consistent person, your reader is less likely to be confused.

Incorrect: When a person (third) goes to a restaurant, you (second) should leave a tip.
Correct: When a person (third) goes to a restaurant, he or she (third) should leave a tip.
Correct: When a person (third) goes to a restaurant, they (third) should leave a tip.
Correct: When we (first) go to a restaurant, I should (first) should leave a tip.

In informal conversations, we often use the second-person pronoun you to refer to “people in general.”

Example: If you run for public office, you should expect scrutiny of your private life.

Unclear or Vague Pronoun Reference

In formal academic writing, avoid this habit. Choose the formal third-person pronoun one instead.

Example: If one runs for public office, one should expect scrutiny of one’s private life.

While using pronouns such as it and they helps reduce unnecessary repetition, it is important to make sure it’s clear what or whom the pronouns refer to.

Example: At the hospital, they said I might be suffering from dehydration. (Who, exactly, does they refer to?).
Example: The researchers found that it was an expensive policy. (What, exactly, does it refer to?).

As you proofread, check that the antecedent has been clearly stated. Otherwise, your instructor may indicate “unclear pronoun reference” or “vague pronoun reference.”

Indefinite Pronouns and Agreement

Indefinite pronouns do not refer to a specific person or thing and are usually singular. Note that a pronoun that refers to an indefinite singular pronoun should also be singular—again, with the exception of they, which can be used as a gender-neutral singular pronoun. The following are some common indefinite pronouns.

all
each one
few
nothing
several
any
each other
many
one
some
anybody
either
neither
one another
somebody
anything
everybody
nobody
oneself
someone
both
everyone
none
other
something
each
everything
no one
others
anyone

Indefinite pronoun agreement

Correct: Everyone (sing.) should do what they (gender-neutral sing.) can to help.
Correct: Everyone (sing.) should do what he or she (sing.) can to help.
Correct: Someone (sing.) left their (gender-neutral sing.) backpack in the library.
Correct: Someone (sing.) left his or her (sing.) backpack in the library.

Collective Nouns

Collective nouns suggest more than one person but are usually considered singular. See the following examples of collective nouns.

audience
faculty
public
band
family
school
class
government
society
committee
group
team
company
jury
tribe

Collective noun agreement

Collective nouns are considered singular, so they require singular pronouns. In these sentences below, the two entities (a company and the government) are single organizations, so they require singular pronouns.
Incorrect: Lara’s company (singular) will have their (plural) annual picnic next week.
Correct: Lara’s company (singular) will have its (singular) annual picnic next week.
Incorrect: I’m mad at the government (singular) because they (plural) always change policies.
Correct: I’m mad at the government (singular) because it (singular) always changes policies.

Because company refers to one company and government refers to one government, each entity is singular, so the pronouns must be singular too. In this context, using the gender-neutral pronoun they doesn’t make sense.

Practice 24.14

In order to choose the correct pronoun for each blank, first circle the noun the pronoun replaces. Then fill in the blank.

1. In the current economy, nobody wants to waste ___________ money on frivolous things.
2. If anybody chooses to go to medical school, ___________ must be prepared to work long hours.
3. The plumbing crew did ___________ best to repair the broken pipes before the next ice storm.
4. If someone is rude to you, try giving ___________ a smile in return.
5. My family has ___________ faults, but I still love them no matter what.
6. The school of education plans to train ___________ students to be literacy tutors.
7. The commencement speaker said that each student has a responsibility toward ___________.
8. My mother’s singing group has ___________ rehearsals on Thursday evenings.
9. No one should suffer ___________ pains alone.
10. I thought the flock of birds lost ___________ way in the storm.

Subject and Object Pronouns

Subject pronouns function as subjects in a sentence. Object pronouns function as the object of a verb or of a preposition.

Singular Pronouns		Plural Pronouns
Subject	Object	Subject	Object
I	me	we	us
you	you	you	you
he/she/it	him/her/it	they	them

The following sentences show pronouns as subjects:

1. She loves the Blue Ridge Mountains in the fall.
2. Every summer, they picked up litter from national parks.

The following sentences show pronouns as objects:

1. Marie leaned over and kissed him.
2. Jane moved it to the corner.

A pronoun can also be the object of a preposition.

Near them, the children played.
My mother stood between us.

The pronouns us and them are objects of the prepositions near and between. They answer the questions, Near whom? And between whom?

Compound subject pronouns are two or more pronouns joined by a conjunction or a preposition that function as the subject of the sentence. The following sentences show pronouns with compound subjects:

Incorrect: Me and Harriet visited the Grand Canyon last summer.
Correct: Harriet and I visited the Grand Canyon last summer.
Correct: Jenna accompanied Harriet and me on our trip.

Note that object pronouns are never used in the subject position. One way to remember this rule is to remove the other subject in a compound subject, leave only the pronoun, and see whether the sentence makes sense. For example, Me visited the Grand Canyon last summer sounds immediately incorrect.

Compound object pronouns are two or more pronouns joined by a conjunction or a preposition that function as the object of the sentence.

Incorrect: I have a good feeling about Janice and I.
Correct: I have a good feeling about Janice and me.

It is grammatically correct to write either Janice and me or me and Janice, but it is considered more polite to refer to yourself last.

In casual conversation, people sometimes mix up subject and object pronouns. For instance, you might say, “Me and Donnie went to a movie last night.” However, when you are writing or speaking at work or in any other formal situation, you should remember the distinctions between subject and object pronouns. These subtle grammar corrections will enhance the clarity and professionalism of your writing.

Practice 24.15

Revise the following sentences in which the subject and object pronouns are used incorrectly. Write OK for each sentence that is correct.

1. Me and Meera enjoy doing yoga together on Sundays.
2. She and him have decided to sell their house.
3. Between you and I, I do not think Jeffrey will win the election.
4. Us and our friends have game night the first Thursday of every month.
5. Them and me met while on vacation in Mexico.
6. Napping on the beach never gets boring for Alice and I.
7. New Year’s Eve is not a good time for she and I to have a serious talk.
8. You exercise much more often than me.
9. I am going to the comedy club with Yolanda and she.
10. Us students need to stick together.

Who Versus Whom

Who or whoever is always the subject of a verb. Use who or whoever when the pronoun performs the action indicated by the verb.

Who won the marathon last Tuesday?
I wonder who came up with that terrible idea!

On the other hand, whom and whomever serve as objects. They are used when the pronoun does not perform an action. Use whom or whomever when the pronoun is the direct object of a verb or the object of a preposition.

Whom did Frank marry the third time? (direct object of verb)
From whom did you buy that old record player? (object of preposition)

If you are having trouble deciding when to use who and whom, try this trick. Take the following sentence:

Who/Whom do I consider my best friend?

Reorder the sentence in your head, using either he or him in place of who or whom.

I consider him my best friend.
I consider he my best friend.

Which sentence sounds better? The first one, of course. So if you could use him, you should use whom.

Practice 24.16

Complete the following sentences by adding who or whom.

1. ___________ hit the home run?
2. I remember ___________ won the Academy Award for Best Actor last year.
3. To ___________ is the letter addressed?
4. I have no idea ___________ left the iron on, but I am going to find out.
5. ___________ are you going to recommend for the internship?
6. With ___________ are you going to Hawaii?
7. No one knew ___________ the famous actor was.
8. ___________ in the office knows how to fix the copy machine?
9. From ___________ did you get the concert tickets?
10. No one knew ___________ ate the cake Mom was saving.

Reflexive Pronouns

Have you ever heard someone say something like this?

Please return the completed report to myself.
Melisa and myself are driving to the gala.

In speaking, people often incorrectly use a reflexive pronoun with the mistaken assumption that it sounds polite or formal. In fact, reflexive pronouns have a very specific grammatical role, and in academic writing, they should be used correctly.

Myself is a reflexive pronoun. Here are the other reflexive pronouns:

	First person	Second person	Third person
Singular	myself	yourself	himself, herself, itself, oneself
Plural	ourselves	yourselves	themselves

Reflexive pronouns should be used only when the subject and object of the sentence are both the same person (or entity). In other words, they are used when a person (or entity) is both the “doer” and the “receiver” of the action in the verb. As a result, a reflexive pronoun can only take the object position in a sentence, not the subject position.

Jérôme accidentally hit himself with the hammer.

In this sentence, Jérôme is both the subject and the object of the verb hit: Jérôme hit Jérôme. Therefore, himself is used correctly.

Melisa drove herself to the gala.

Melisa is both the subject and the object of the verb drove: Melisa drove Melisa. Therefore, herself is used correctly.

The executives paid themselves well.

The executives are both the subject and the object of the verb paid: the executives paid the executives. Therefore, themselves is used correctly.

The cat lazily licked itself.

The cat is both the subject and the object of the verb licked: the cat licked the cat. Therefore, itself is used correctly.

Incorrect: Vivian and myself are driving to the gala.

In this case, we have compound subjects because two people are driving to the gala. As you learned above, a reflexive pronoun cannot be the subject of a sentence. As you learned in the previous section, I is a subjective pronoun, so this is the correct sentence:

Vivian and I are driving to the gala.
Incorrect: Marian, please return the completed report to myself.

In this case, the subject and object of the sentence are two different people. Marian is the subject. As you learned in the previous section, me is an objective pronoun, so this is the corrected sentence:

Marian, please return the completed report to me.

The same guideline applies to a compound object:

Incorrect: Please return the book to Shannon and myself.
Correct: Please return the book to Shannon and me.

Reflexive pronouns can also take on the role of intensive pronouns, which emphasize a noun or pronoun.

I myself will take on this incredible challenge.
Can you believe the premier herself spoke at the banquet?
He himself is to blame.
It was the snowboarders themselves who finally fixed the ramp.

Practice 24.17

In the following sentences, first, circle the reflexive pronoun. Then determine whether the reflexive pronoun is used correctly or incorrectly. If it is used correctly, write OK. If it is used incorrectly, write the corrected sentence.

1. I enrolled myself in an English class.
2. The project was completed by Kara and myself.
3. Michael and myself are responsible for editing the report.
4. Jo-Ann and Cathy, please submit the application to myself.
5. Sharren prided herself on her work ethic.
6. Francis and Stuart found themself in a difficult situation.
7. We have only ourself to blame, Paul!
8. The seals sunned themselves on the beach.
9. Make your lunch yourself!
10. The bear made itself visible to Cornelia and Robert.

Adjectives and Adverbs

Adjectives and adverbs are descriptive words that bring writing to life by describing nouns and verbs to make them more specific and interesting.

Adjectives and Adverbs

An adjective is a word that describes a noun or a pronoun. It often answers questions such as which one, what kind, or how many?

The green sweater belongs to Iris.
She looks beautiful.

In the first sentence, the adjective green describes the noun sweater. Which sweater is Iris’s? The green one. In the second sentence, the adjective beautiful describes the pronoun she. How does she look? She looks beautiful.

An adverb is a word that describes a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. Adverbs frequently end in -ly. They answer questions such as how, to what extent, why, when, and where.

Bertrand sings horribly.
My sociology instructor is extremely wise.
He threw the ball very accurately.

In the first sentence, horribly describes the verb sings. How does Bertrand sing? He sings horribly. In the second sentence, extremely describes the adjective wise. How wise is the instructor? Extremely wise. In the third sentence, very describes the adverb accurately. How accurately did he throw the ball? Very accurately.

Practice 24.18

Complete the following sentences by adding a correct adjective or adverb. Identify the word as an adjective (adj.) or an adverb (adv.).

1. Frederick ___________ choked on the piece of chicken when he saw Margaret walk through the door.
2. His ___________ eyes looked at everyone and everything as if they were specimens in a biology lab.
3. Despite her pessimistic views on life, Lauren believes that most people have ___________ hearts.
4. Although Stefan took the criticism ___________, he remained calm.
5. The child developed a ___________ imagination because he read a lot of books.
6. Madeleine spoke ___________ while she was visiting her grandmother in the hospital.
7. Hector’s most ___________ possession was his father’s bass guitar from the 1970s.
8. My definition of a ___________ afternoon is walking to the park on a beautiful day, spreading out my blanket, and losing myself in a good book.
9. She ___________ eyed her new co-worker and wondered if she was single.
10. At the party, Denise ___________ devoured two pieces of pepperoni pizza and several slices of ripe watermelon.

Comparative Versus Superlative

Comparative adjectives and adverbs are used to compare two people or things.

Jorge is thin.
Steven is thinner than Jorge.

The first sentence describes Jorge with the adjective thin. The second sentence compares Jorge to Steven, stating that Steven is thinner. Thinner is the comparative form of thin.

Comparatives can be formed in one of the following two ways:

1. If the adjective or adverb is a one-syllable word, add -er to it to form the comparative. For example, big, fast, and short would become bigger, faster, and shorter in the comparative form.
2. If the adjective or adverb is a word of two or more syllables, place the word more in front of it to form the comparative. For example, happily, comfortable, and jealous would become more happily, more comfortable, and more jealous in the comparative.

Superlative adjectives and adverbs are used to compare more than two people or more than two things.

Jackie is the loudest cheerleader on the squad.
Kenyatta was voted the most confident student by her graduating class.

The first sentence declares that Jackie is not just louder than one other person, but she is the loudest of all the cheerleaders on the squad. The second sentence shows that Kenyatta is not just more confident than one or two other students; she was voted the most confident student of all the students in her class.

Superlatives can be formed in one of the following two ways:

1. If the adjective or adverb is a one-syllable word, add -est to form the superlative. For example, big, fast, and short would become biggest, fastest, and shortest in the superlative form.
2. If the adjective or adverb is a word of two or more syllables, place the word most in front of it. For example, happily, comfortable, and jealous would become most happily, most comfortable, and most jealous in the superlative form.
3. Exception: If the word has two syllables and ends in -y, change the -y to an -i and add -est. For example, happy would change to happiest in the superlative form; healthy would change to healthiest.

Practice 24.19

Edit the following paragraph by correcting the errors in comparative and superlative adjectives.

It all started on the most sunny afternoon that I have ever experienced. Max and I were sitting on the porch. I told him that my dog, Jacko, was more smart than his dog, Merlin. Merlin never comes when he’s called, and he chases his tail and barks at rocks! I said Merlin was the most dumbest dog on the block. I guess I was angrier about a bad grade that I received, so I decided to pick on poor little Merlin. Even though Max insulted Jacko too, I felt I had been more mean. The next day I apologized to Max and brought Merlin some treats. When Merlin placed his paw on my knee and licked my hand, I was the most sorry person on the block.

Irregular Adjectives and Adverbs: Good, Well, Bad, and Badly

Good, well, bad, and badly are often used incorrectly. Study the following chart to learn the correct usage of these words and their comparative and superlative forms.

		Comparative	Superlative
Adjective	good	better	best
Adverb	well	better	best
Adjective	bad	worse	worst
Adverb	badly	worse	worst

Good Versus Well

Good is always an adjective—that is, a word that describes a noun or a pronoun. The second sentence is correct because well is an adverb that tells how something is done.

Incorrect: Cecilia felt that she had never done so good on a test.
Correct: Cecilia felt that she had never done so well on a test.

Well is always an adverb that describes a verb, adverb, or adjective. The second sentence is correct because good is an adjective that describes the noun score.

Incorrect: Cecilia’s team received a well score.
Correct: Cecilia’s team received a good score.

Bad Versus Badly

Bad is always an adjective. The second sentence is correct because badly is an adverb that tells how the speaker did on the test.

Incorrect: I did bad on my accounting test because I didn’t study.
Correct: I did badly on my accounting test because I didn’t study.

Badly is always an adverb. The second sentence is correct because bad is an adjective that describes the noun thunderstorm.

Incorrect: The coming thunderstorm looked badly.
Correct: The coming thunderstorm looked bad.

Better and Worse

The following are examples of the use of better and worse:

Correct: Tyra likes sprinting better than long-distance running.
Correct: The traffic is worse in Toronto than in Regina.

Best and Worst

The following are examples of the use of best and worst:

Correct: Tyra sprints best of all the other competitors.
Correct: Peter finished worst of all the runners in the race.

Remember better and worse compare two persons or things. Best and worst compare three or more persons or things.

Practice 24.20

Choose, well, bad, or badly to complete each sentence.

1. Donna always played ___________ if she didn’t warm up beforehand.
2. The school board president gave a ___________ speech for once.
3. Although my dog, Comet, is mischievous, he always behaves ___________ at the dog park.
4. I thought my back injury was ___________ at first, but it turned out to be minor.
5. Steve was shaking ___________ from the extreme cold.
6. Apple crisp is a very ___________ dessert that can be made using whole grains instead of white flour.
7. The meeting with my son’s math teacher went very ___________.
8. Juan has a ___________ appetite, especially when it comes to dessert.
9. Magritte thought the guests had a ___________ time at the party because most people left early.
10. She ___________ wanted to win the writing contest prize, which included a trip to Vancouver.

Practice 24.21

Choose the correct comparative or superlative form of the word in parentheses.

1. This research paper is ___________ (good) than my last one.
2. Tanaya likes country music ___________ (well) of all.
3. My motorcycle rides ___________ (bad) than it did last summer.
4. That is the ___________ (bad) joke my father ever told.
5. The hockey team played ___________ (badly) than it did last season.
6. Tracey plays guitar ___________ (well) than she plays the piano.
7. It will go down as one of the ___________ (bad) movies I have ever seen.
8. The deforestation in the Amazon is ___________ (bad) than it was last year.
9. Movie ticket sales are ___________ (good) this year than last.
10. Laetitia says mystery novels are the ___________ (good) types of books.

Misplaced and Dangling Modifiers

A modifier is a word, phrase, or clause that clarifies or describes another word, phrase, or clause. Sometimes writers use modifiers incorrectly, leading to odd and unintentionally humorous sentences. The two common types of modifier errors are called misplaced modifiers and dangling modifiers. If either of these errors occurs, readers can no longer read smoothly. Instead, they become stumped trying to figure out what the writer meant to say.

A writer’s goal must always be to communicate clearly and to avoid distracting the reader with odd sentences or awkward sentence constructions. The good news is that these errors can be easily overcome.

Misplaced Modifiers

A misplaced modifier is a modifier that is placed too far from the word or words it modifies. Misplaced modifiers make the sentence awkward and sometimes unintentionally humorous.

Incorrect: Bella wore a bicycle helmet on her head that was too large.
Correct: Bella wore a bicycle helmet that was too large on her head.

In the incorrect sentence, it sounds as if Bella’s head was too large. Of course, the writer is referring to the helmet, not to Bella’s head. The corrected version of the sentence clarifies the writer’s meaning.

Look at the following two examples:

Incorrect: They bought a kitten for my brother they call Shadow.
Correct: They bought a kitten they call Shadow for my brother.

In the incorrect sentence, it seems that the brother’s name is Shadow. That’s because the modifier is too far from the word it modifies, which is kitten.

Incorrect: The patient was referred to the physician with stomach pains.
Correct: The patient with stomach pains was referred to the physician.

The incorrect sentence reads as if it is the physician who has stomach pains! What the writer means is that the patient has stomach pains.

Simple modifiers like only, almost, just, nearly, and barely often get used incorrectly because writers often stick them in the wrong place.

Confusing: Tyler almost found fifty cents under the sofa cushions.
Repaired: Tyler found almost fifty cents under the sofa cushions.

How do you almost find something? Either you find it or you do not. The repaired sentence is much clearer.

Practice 24.22

In the following sentences, correct the misplaced modifiers.

1. The young woman was walking the dog on the telephone.
2. I heard that there was a robbery on the evening news.
3. Uncle Louie bought a running stroller for the baby that he called “Speed Racer.”
4. Rolling down the mountain, the explorer stopped the boulder with his foot.
5. We are looking for a babysitter for our precious six-year-old who doesn’t drink or smoke and owns a car.
6. The teacher served cookies to the children wrapped in aluminum foil.
7. The mysterious woman walked toward the car holding an umbrella.
8. We returned the wine to the waiter that was sour.
9. Charlie spotted a stray puppy driving home from work.
10. I ate nothing but a cold bowl of noodles for dinner.

Dangling Modifiers

A dangling modifier is a word, phrase, or clause that describes something that has been left out of the sentence. When there is nothing that the word, phrase, or clause can modify, the modifier is said to dangle.

Incorrect: Riding in the sports car, the world whizzed by rapidly.
Correct: As Jane was riding in the sports car, the world whizzed by rapidly.

In the incorrect sentence, riding in the sports car is dangling. The reader is left wondering who is riding in the sports car. The world? The writer must tell the reader!

Incorrect: Walking home at night, the trees looked like spooky aliens.
Correct: As Jonas was walking home at night, the trees looked like spooky aliens.
Correct: The trees looked like spooky aliens as Jonas was walking home at night.

In the incorrect sentence walking home at night is dangling. Who is walking home at night? The trees? Jonas? Note that there are two different ways the dangling modifier can be corrected.

Incorrect: Damaged by the wind, James was sure the tree would not survive.
Correct: James was sure that the tree that was damaged by the wind would not survive.
Correct: Noting the damage done to the tree by the wind, James was sure it would not survive.

In the incorrect sentence, damaged by the wind appears to describe James. If it is not James who was damaged by the wind, what was? Who might not survive the damage? The tree!

The following three steps will help you quickly spot a dangling modifier:

1. Look for an -ing modifier at the beginning of your sentence or another modifying phrase:
- Painting for three hours at night, the kitchen was finally finished by Maggie.
  Painting is the -ing modifier. Not all dangling modifiers contain an -ing verb. The verb may end in -ed or be an irregular verb.
2. Underline the first noun that follows it (the first noun after the comma):
- Painting for three hours at night, the kitchen was finally finished by Maggie.
  Kitchen is the subject of the sentence. Has the kitchen been painting for three hours? Make sure the modifier is describing the entity represented by the noun. If not, the sentence likely contains a dangling modifier.
3. Rewrite the sentence so that the subject of the modifier appears directly after the comma:
- Painting for three hours at night, Maggie finally finished the kitchen.

Practice 24.23

Identify the dangling or misplaced modifier in each sentence, and rewrite the following sentences, eliminating the error.

1. Making discoveries about new creatures, this is an interesting time to be a biologist.
2. Walking in the dark, the picture fell off the wall.
3. Playing guitar in the bedroom, the cat was seen under the bed.
4. Packing for a trip, a cockroach scurried down the hallway.
5. While looking in the mirror, the towel swayed in the breeze.
6. Driving to the vet’s office, the dog nervously whined.
7. When walking into the museum, the priceless painting drew large crowds.
8. Piled up next to the bookshelf, I chose a romance novel.
9. Chewed furiously, the gum fell out of my mouth.
10. Despite marking the assignments quickly, the students were disappointed with the grades the professor assigned.

Practice 24.24

Rewrite the following paragraph correcting all the misplaced and dangling modifiers.

I bought a fresh loaf of bread for my sandwich shopping at the grocery store. Wanting to make a delicious sandwich, the mayonnaise was thickly spread. Placing the cold cuts on the bread, the lettuce was placed on top. I cut the sandwich in half with a knife turning on the radio. Biting into the sandwich, my favourite song blared loudly in my ears. Humming and chewing, my sandwich went down smoothly. Smiling, my sandwich will be made again, but next time I will add cheese.

Key Takeaways

• A sentence is complete when it contains a subject, a verb, and a complete idea.
• A subject, which usually appears at the beginning of the sentence, is the noun (a person, place, or thing) or pronoun that the sentence is about.
• A verb indicates what the subject is doing, and a verb may be an action, linking, or helping verb.
• The parts of a sentence must agree in number, person, case, and gender.
• In some sentences, the subject and verb may be separated by a phrase or clause, but the verb must still agree with the subject.
• Variety in sentence structure and length improves writing by making it more interesting and more complex.
• Fragments, comma splices, and run-on sentences are three common sentence errors.
• Verb tense expresses when an event takes place.
• Irregular verbs do not follow regular, predictable patterns when shifting from present to past tense.
• Pronouns and their antecedents need to agree in number and person.
• Most indefinite pronouns and collective nouns are singular.
• Pronouns can function as subjects or objects.
• Subject pronouns are never used as objects, and object pronouns are never used as subjects.
• Reflexive pronouns can be used only when the subject and object of a sentence are both the same person (or entity).
• Adjectives describe a noun or a pronoun.
• Adverbs describe a verb, adjective, or another adverb.
• Comparative adjectives and adverbs compare two persons or things.
• Superlative adjectives or adverbs compare more than two persons or things.
• Misplaced and dangling modifiers make sentences confusing and distracting.

Chapter 25. Mechanics: Punctuation, Capitalization, and Spelling